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Discovery of chemical elements
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<h2 id="periodic-table-of-elements">Periodic table of elements</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="20"><a href="/facts/Periodic_table/umdGIfUb">Periodic table</a> by era of discovery</th></tr><tr><th></th><th><a href="/facts/Alkali_metal/IkWbCLk2">1</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Alkaline_earth_metal/Ts4U5zIe">2</a></th><th> </th><th><a href="/facts/Group_3_element/q60AHJ7U">3</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Group_4_element/QGKs7lMz">4</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Group_5_element/C08aMlur">5</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Group_6_element/s8cA1Rwd">6</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Group_7_element/C1kHt0oD">7</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Group_8_element/VtbLeVpY">8</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Group_9_element/YsFjV4Ey">9</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Group_10_element/oIUwy5mC">10</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Group_11_element/phumzNJU">11</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Group_12_element/z8aB00Ih">12</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Boron_group/RXnvqnNk">13</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Carbon_group/PkWCV3Vx">14</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Pnictogen/jX4hvCkK">15</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Chalcogen/nXLGmnqL">16</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Halogen/YeFgWHeA">17</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Noble_gas/j0yHMEAE">18</a></th></tr><tr><th colspan="3"><a href="/facts/Group_(periodic_table)/YGBcUabv">Group</a> →</th><th colspan="17"> </th></tr><tr><th colspan="3">↓ <a href="/facts/Period_(periodic_table)/WpGUFh5V">Period</a></th><th colspan="17"> </th></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Period_1_element/bRg5LCQF">1</a></th><td>1<a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">H</a></td><td colspan="1"></td><td colspan="11"></td><td colspan="5"></td><td>2<a href="/facts/Helium/yRul93TG">He</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Period_2_element/1ajRWfrb">2</a></th><td>3<a href="/facts/Lithium/7vXX6BWA">Li</a></td><td>4<a href="/facts/Beryllium/dv295voP">Be</a></td><td colspan="11"></td><td>5<a href="/facts/Boron/Pmwgd7Mf">B</a></td><td>6<a href="/facts/Carbon/ukrgQexo">C</a></td><td>7<a href="/facts/Nitrogen/Nf1QpGDz">N</a></td><td>8<a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">O</a></td><td>9<a href="/facts/Fluorine/YUV0Fb8m">F</a></td><td>10<a href="/facts/Neon/5bF1FwGL">Ne</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Period_3_element/1BE0Nc0K">3</a></th><td>11<a href="/facts/Sodium/eYuSPu2V">Na</a></td><td>12<a href="/facts/Magnesium/XyIhd2FG">Mg</a></td><td colspan="11"></td><td>13<a href="/facts/Aluminium/7wmR8jYE">Al</a></td><td>14<a href="/facts/Silicon/cgWx0hdr">Si</a></td><td>15<a href="/facts/Phosphorus/27xCeIqs">P</a></td><td>16<a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">S</a></td><td>17<a href="/facts/Chlorine/y27UwYBM">Cl</a></td><td>18<a href="/facts/Argon/QX6NRH6d">Ar</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Period_4_element/BgDFfE26">4</a></th><td>19<a href="/facts/Potassium/5lcumVgo">K</a></td><td>20<a href="/facts/Calcium/hf252CC0">Ca</a></td><td></td><td>21<a href="/facts/Scandium/TJRt1chg">Sc</a></td><td>22<a href="/facts/Titanium/53ArnDoy">Ti</a></td><td>23<a href="/facts/Vanadium/UvKkKTSm">V</a></td><td>24<a href="/facts/Chromium/6sVk6Uu7">Cr</a></td><td>25<a href="/facts/Manganese/j9ELd1TL">Mn</a></td><td>26<a href="/facts/Iron/DkICCKIC">Fe</a></td><td>27<a href="/facts/Cobalt/gqhScEw4">Co</a></td><td>28<a href="/facts/Nickel/KwMCHYRP">Ni</a></td><td>29<a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">Cu</a></td><td>30<a href="/facts/Zinc/80b1qgk3">Zn</a></td><td>31<a href="/facts/Gallium/EucevDs9">Ga</a></td><td>32<a href="/facts/Germanium/wtoALHGs">Ge</a></td><td>33<a href="/facts/Arsenic/k1c4f44D">As</a></td><td>34<a href="/facts/Selenium/k975NApC">Se</a></td><td>35<a href="/facts/Bromine/oLfj3C7D">Br</a></td><td>36<a href="/facts/Krypton/llkNlCke">Kr</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Period_5_element/xLJUWWDS">5</a></th><td>37<a href="/facts/Rubidium/KDHSe2HM">Rb</a></td><td>38<a href="/facts/Strontium/ABaA5qQK">Sr</a></td><td></td><td>39<a href="/facts/Yttrium/BlX6rj99">Y</a></td><td>40<a href="/facts/Zirconium/y7gsoQFz">Zr</a></td><td>41<a href="/facts/Niobium/3zNI8AKp">Nb</a></td><td>42<a href="/facts/Molybdenum/RX6vp2bF">Mo</a></td><td>43<a href="/facts/Technetium/MGYWNI5d">Tc</a></td><td>44<a href="/facts/Ruthenium/uzCm4ufn">Ru</a></td><td>45<a href="/facts/Rhodium/xmBd9aFG">Rh</a></td><td>46<a href="/facts/Palladium/P7y0ESWf">Pd</a></td><td>47<a href="/facts/Silver/xXe41BGg">Ag</a></td><td>48<a href="/facts/Cadmium/wXkV2eIX">Cd</a></td><td>49<a href="/facts/Indium/zRq3stVb">In</a></td><td>50<a href="/facts/Tin/vxbbBgNz">Sn</a></td><td>51<a href="/facts/Antimony/YsA7lVgT">Sb</a></td><td>52<a href="/facts/Tellurium/v7QvfIvS">Te</a></td><td>53<a href="/facts/Iodine/JlfMecMf">I</a></td><td>54<a href="/facts/Xenon/9E3XR69R">Xe</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Period_6_element/9YleCXwf">6</a></th><td>55<a href="/facts/Caesium/dXKN1S5k">Cs</a></td><td>56<a href="/facts/Barium/IkL09XHQ">Ba</a></td><td></td><td>71<a href="/facts/Lutetium/URlmnYG8">Lu</a></td><td>72<a href="/facts/Hafnium/rBNnlxDS">Hf</a></td><td>73<a href="/facts/Tantalum/VwaxMm33">Ta</a></td><td>74<a href="/facts/Tungsten/WYwbNDYX">W</a></td><td>75<a href="/facts/Rhenium/TzyqJYEn">Re</a></td><td>76<a href="/facts/Osmium/1TjXD69n">Os</a></td><td>77<a href="/facts/Iridium/cB4n6MbQ">Ir</a></td><td>78<a href="/facts/Platinum/qJC6lQf7">Pt</a></td><td>79<a href="/facts/Gold/1znknojp">Au</a></td><td>80<a href="/facts/Mercury_(element)/WlxfoHva">Hg</a></td><td>81<a href="/facts/Thallium/v35pGMJB">Tl</a></td><td>82<a href="/facts/Lead/EYljasJN">Pb</a></td><td>83<a href="/facts/Bismuth/75FLjkoX">Bi</a></td><td>84<a href="/facts/Polonium/G4rzsyjP">Po</a></td><td>85<a href="/facts/Astatine/AlbHPBK5">At</a></td><td>86<a href="/facts/Radon/0V9arWKl">Rn</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Period_7_element/H5QuVHGQ">7</a></th><td>87<a href="/facts/Francium/P3Rz4gDP">Fr</a></td><td>88<a href="/facts/Radium/VWo5gkzn">Ra</a></td><td></td><td>103<a href="/facts/Lawrencium/HVw2LVlx">Lr</a></td><td>104<a href="/facts/Rutherfordium/44LSnv9p">Rf</a></td><td>105<a href="/facts/Dubnium/3CHC1lEt">Db</a></td><td>106<a href="/facts/Seaborgium/ejs0Ap6P">Sg</a></td><td>107<a href="/facts/Bohrium/epvp3GWM">Bh</a></td><td>108<a href="/facts/Hassium/t0bgGzwt">Hs</a></td><td>109<a href="/facts/Meitnerium/pKaD3sRY">Mt</a></td><td>110<a href="/facts/Darmstadtium/etmwTLmP">Ds</a></td><td>111<a href="/facts/Roentgenium/LEhvJaJQ">Rg</a></td><td>112<a href="/facts/Copernicium/EhgyBkg0">Cn</a></td><td>113<a href="/facts/Nihonium/sb09p5dv">Nh</a></td><td>114<a href="/facts/Flerovium/Aa7uGMuG">Fl</a></td><td>115<a href="/facts/Moscovium/QhSEr0H5">Mc</a></td><td>116<a href="/facts/Livermorium/nQc1FE6E">Lv</a></td><td>117<a href="/facts/Tennessine/eGCBDvEr">Ts</a></td><td>118<a href="/facts/Oganesson/zs5MQDjV">Og</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="20"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"></td><td>57<a href="/facts/Lanthanum/Uhmmy1sB">La</a></td><td>58<a href="/facts/Cerium/a7UjMBQ6">Ce</a></td><td>59<a href="/facts/Praseodymium/2lnRJ9dH">Pr</a></td><td>60<a href="/facts/Neodymium/GzDkTIoI">Nd</a></td><td>61<a href="/facts/Promethium/8xvCz9Rg">Pm</a></td><td>62<a href="/facts/Samarium/09K3kl93">Sm</a></td><td>63<a href="/facts/Europium/dqmBm1vr">Eu</a></td><td>64<a href="/facts/Gadolinium/eLYUeScu">Gd</a></td><td>65<a href="/facts/Terbium/ICF3PMED">Tb</a></td><td>66<a href="/facts/Dysprosium/eMev6zGS">Dy</a></td><td>67<a href="/facts/Holmium/C73kJVtp">Ho</a></td><td>68<a href="/facts/Erbium/XEJlgJcx">Er</a></td><td>69<a href="/facts/Thulium/G2905xhd">Tm</a></td><td>70<a href="/facts/Ytterbium/3lerM9uf">Yb</a></td><td> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="4"></td><td>89<a href="/facts/Actinium/GMQtJ4Gm">Ac</a></td><td>90<a href="/facts/Thorium/ysdWH470">Th</a></td><td>91<a href="/facts/Protactinium/v87VqTPf">Pa</a></td><td>92<a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">U</a></td><td>93<a href="/facts/Neptunium/pwp7Yvds">Np</a></td><td>94<a href="/facts/Plutonium/4bUw9zH3">Pu</a></td><td>95<a href="/facts/Americium/rxL9Yc64">Am</a></td><td>96<a href="/facts/Curium/LMyWXg8l">Cm</a></td><td>97<a href="/facts/Berkelium/ePryEYy3">Bk</a></td><td>98<a href="/facts/Californium/AJVjoVut">Cf</a></td><td>99<a href="/facts/Einsteinium/RePoIVN9">Es</a></td><td>100<a href="/facts/Fermium/Us3rnvG5">Fm</a></td><td>101<a href="/facts/Mendelevium/bEHBu18F">Md</a></td><td>102<a href="/facts/Nobelium/syRkloSw">No</a></td><td> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="20"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="20"><table><tbody><tr><td colspan="7">Background color shows age of discovery:</td></tr><tr><td>Antiquity to 1600</td><td>1600–1799</td><td>1800–1849</td><td>1850–1899</td><td>1900–1949</td><td>1950–1999</td><td>Since 2000</td></tr><tr><td>(14 elements)<a href="/facts/Prehistory/52D6oKM4">Antiquity</a> to 1600: ancient to early modern discoveries</td><td>(27 elements)Discoveries during the <a href="/facts/Scientific_Revolution/KdeJepMq">Scientific Revolution</a> and the <a href="/facts/History_of_the_periodic_table/54vj6AVe">age of enlightenment</a>, part of the gradual rejection of the <a href="/facts/Classical_element/LIzQ4aoX">Aristotelian theory of matter</a>, and <a href="/facts/Antoine_Lavoisier/UheVQrhu">Lavoisier</a>'s definition of a chemical element</td><td>(19 elements)The <a href="/facts/Chemical_revolution/ab4z8Tht">chemical</a> and <a href="/facts/Industrial_Revolution/B6E3Fasm">industrial</a> revolutions lead to the standardization of chemical techniques and the development of <a href="/facts/Atomic_theory/B2WvuLf6">atomic theory</a> for chemistry</td><td>(23 elements)The age of <a href="/facts/History_of_the_periodic_table/54vj6AVe">classifying elements</a> and <a href="/facts/Dmitri_Mendeleev/xdouRrx8">Mendeleev</a>'s <a href="/facts/Periodic_table/umdGIfUb">periodic table</a>; application of <a href="/facts/Spectroscopy/mj71FuNK">spectrum analysis</a> techniques: <a href="/facts/Paul_Emile_Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran/XT2EnBwI">Boisbaudran</a>, <a href="/facts/Robert_Bunsen/HYqSh9tH">Bunsen</a>, <a href="/facts/William_Crookes/q8U8VVwR">Crookes</a>, <a href="/facts/Gottlieb_Kirchhoff/xazztmQk">Kirchhoff</a>, and others "hunting <a href="/facts/Emission_line/HuI4Bj5f">emission line</a> signatures"</td><td>(14 elements)Developments in <a href="/facts/X-ray_spectroscopy/spWfPwYK">X-ray spectroscopy</a> and <a href="/facts/Radiochemistry/vdL6AaCH">radiochemistry</a> allows for many <a href="/facts/Radioactive_decay/Ya6FVjt4">radioactive</a> elements and the final stable elements to be discovered; recognition of the <a href="/facts/Atomic_number/bgAr581S">atomic number</a> as defining an element</td><td>(16 elements)Post <a href="/facts/Manhattan_project/gtg8yRK2">Manhattan project</a>; <a href="/facts/Synthetic_element/azU9Nr1m">synthesis</a> of atomic numbers 98 and above (<a href="/facts/Collider/j6wTDohV">colliders</a>, bombardment techniques, <a href="/facts/Nuclear_reactor/8xqjIbge">nuclear reactors</a>)</td><td>(5 elements)Recent synthesis</td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/facts/Primordial_nuclide/lFAUqHDv">Primordial</a> <a href="/facts/Trace_radioisotope/dLa5hj0I">From decay</a> <a href="/facts/Synthetic_element/azU9Nr1m">Synthetic</a> Border shows natural occurrence of the element </td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="graphical-timeline">Graphical timeline</h2> <h2 id="cumulative-diagram">Cumulative diagram</h2> <h2 id="pre-modern-and-early-modern-discoveries">Pre-modern and early modern discoveries</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th><a href="/facts/Atomic_number/bgAr581S">Z</a></th><th>Element</th><th>Earliest use</th><th>Oldest existing sample</th><th>Discoverer(s)</th><th>Place of oldest sample</th><th>Notes</th></tr><tr><td>79</td><td><a href="/facts/Gold/1znknojp">Gold</a></td><td>40000 BC</td><td>4600 BC – 4200 BC</td><td>Earliest humans</td><td><a href="/facts/Varna_Necropolis/qLRlhIkB">Varna Necropolis</a></td><td>Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late <a href="/facts/Paleolithic/I48SMHo5">Paleolithic</a> period, c. 40000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> The earliest gold artifacts dating to 4600 BC to 4200 BC were discovered at the site of <a href="/facts/Varna_Necropolis/qLRlhIkB">Varna Necropolis</a>, <a href="/facts/Bulgaria/Er5pY3YS">Bulgaria</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>6</td><td><a href="/facts/Carbon/ukrgQexo">Carbon</a></td><td>26000 BC</td><td>26000 BC</td><td>Earliest humans</td><td></td><td>Charcoal and soot were known to the earliest humans, with the oldest known <a href="/facts/Charcoal_(art)/YtLzFTfN">charcoal paintings</a> dating to about 28000 years ago, e.g. <a href="/facts/Gabarnmung/gDeoSPEr">Gabarnmung</a> in Australia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> The earliest known industrial use of charcoal was for the <a href="/facts/Carbothermic_reaction/gj0GA25m">reduction</a> of copper, zinc, and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze, by the Egyptians and Sumerians.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Diamond/IBUdnd1y">Diamonds</a> were probably known as early as 2500 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> True chemical analyses were made in the 18th century,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> and in 1772 <a href="/facts/Antoine_Lavoisier/UheVQrhu">Antoine Lavoisier</a> demonstrated that diamond, graphite, and charcoal are all composed of the same substance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> In 1787, de Morveau, Fourcroy, and Lavoisier listed carbon (in French, <i>carbone</i>) as an element, distinguishing it from coal (in French, <i>charbon</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>29</td><td><a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">Copper</a></td><td>9000 BC</td><td>6000 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">Middle East</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Asia_Minor/vMkrLrPr">Asia Minor</a></td><td>It was originally obtained as a native metal and later from the smelting of ores. Earliest estimates of the discovery of copper suggest around 9000 BC in the Middle East. It was one of the most important materials to humans throughout the <a href="/facts/Chalcolithic/asevzSXh">Chalcolithic</a> and <a href="/facts/Bronze_Age/c09qWcTt">Bronze Ages</a>. Copper beads dating from 6000 BC have been found in <a href="/facts/%25C3%2587atalh%25C3%25B6y%25C3%25BCk/IGF4CjTc">Çatalhöyük</a>, <a href="/facts/Anatolia/vMkrLrPr">Anatolia</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> and the <a href="/facts/Archaeological/K3Q5P38R">archaeological</a> site of Belovode on the <a href="/facts/Rudnik_(mountain)/jzlvy30Y">Rudnik mountain</a> in <a href="/facts/Serbia/U0LVzPdI">Serbia</a> contains the world's oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting from 5000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> Recognised as an element by <a href="/facts/Louis_Guyton_de_Morveau/GzTxXmwH">Louis Guyton de Morveau</a>, <a href="/facts/Antoine_Lavoisier/UheVQrhu">Antoine Lavoisier</a>, <a href="/facts/Claude_Berthollet/JeduoWk5">Claude Berthollet</a>, and <a href="/facts/Antoine-Fran%25C3%25A7ois_de_Fourcroy/GjT9JwUn">Antoine-François de Fourcroy</a> in 1787.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>82</td><td><a href="/facts/Lead/EYljasJN">Lead</a></td><td>7000 BC</td><td>3800 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/Lead/EYljasJN">Asia Minor</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Abydos%2c_Egypt/7ab7kGCq">Abydos, Egypt</a></td><td>It is believed that lead smelting began at least 9,000 years ago, and the oldest known artifact of lead is a statuette found at the temple of <a href="/facts/Osiris/HjlUnTH2">Osiris</a> on the site of Abydos dated around 3800 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>47</td><td><a href="/facts/Silver/xXe41BGg">Silver</a></td><td>Before 5000 BC</td><td>ca. 4000 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/Silver/xXe41BGg">Asia Minor</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Asia_Minor/vMkrLrPr">Asia Minor</a></td><td>Estimated to have been discovered in <a href="/facts/Asia_Minor/vMkrLrPr">Asia Minor</a> shortly after copper and gold.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>26</td><td><a href="/facts/Iron/DkICCKIC">Iron</a></td><td>Before 5000 BC</td><td>4000 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/Ferrous_metallurgy/XpwtCB0X">Middle East</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Egypt/8Ttg0JwB">Egypt</a></td><td>There is evidence that iron was known from before 5000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> The oldest known iron objects used by humans are some beads of <a href="/facts/Meteoric_iron/pRaMdRz6">meteoric iron</a>, made in Egypt in about 4000 BC. The discovery of smelting around 3000 BC led to the start of the <a href="/facts/Iron_Age/mpQYShI0">Iron Age</a> around 1200 BC<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> and the prominent use of iron for tools and weapons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>50</td><td><a href="/facts/Tin/vxbbBgNz">Tin</a></td><td>3500 BC</td><td>2000 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/Asia_Minor/vMkrLrPr">Asia Minor</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Kestel_(archaeological_site)/32ylC8l6">Kestel</a></td><td>First smelted in combination with copper around 3500 BC to produce <a href="/facts/Bronze/YCYCVIKt">bronze</a> (and thus giving place to the <a href="/facts/Bronze_Age/c09qWcTt">Bronze Age</a> in those places where <a href="/facts/Iron_Age/mpQYShI0">Iron Age</a> did not intrude directly on <a href="/facts/Neolithic/wRS0Bnh4">Neolithic</a> of the <a href="/facts/Stone_Age/r1KMneWW">Stone Age</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Kestel_(archaeological_site)/32ylC8l6">Kestel</a>, in southern <a href="/facts/Turkey/KIYAWAs0">Turkey</a>, is the site of an ancient <a href="/facts/Cassiterite/d4hzR7LB">Cassiterite</a> mine that was used from 3250 to 1800 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> The oldest artifacts date from around 2000 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>51</td><td><a href="/facts/Antimony/YsA7lVgT">Antimony</a></td><td>3000 BC</td><td>3000 BC</td><td>Sumerians</td><td>Middle East</td><td>An artifact, said to be part of a vase, made of very pure antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at <a href="/facts/Girsu/m2jMdNAM">Telloh</a>, <a href="/facts/Chaldea/T03FU73T">Chaldea</a> (part of present-day <a href="/facts/Iraq/pqYSFJw8">Iraq</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Pedanius_Dioscorides/FzDmURv3">Dioscorides</a> and <a href="/facts/Pliny_the_Elder/grx67ghR">Pliny</a> both describe the accidental production of metallic antimony from <a href="/facts/Stibnite/f1wo26vQ">stibnite</a>, but only seem to recognize the metal as lead.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> The intentional isolation of antimony is described in the works attributed to the Muslim alchemist <a href="/facts/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan/qUTxy4kA">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a> (c. 850–950).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> In Europe, the metal was being produced and used by 1540, when it was described by Vannoccio Biringuccio.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> Described again by <a href="/facts/Georgius_Agricola/FXprFXAK">Georgius Agricola</a> <i><a href="/facts/De_re_metallica/qA5RYnXM">De re metallica</a></i> in 1556. Probably first recognised as an element by Lavoisier in 1787.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>16</td><td><a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">Sulfur</a></td><td>Before 2000 BC</td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">Middle East</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Middle_East/8CD6pLWv">Middle East</a></td><td>First used at least 4,000 years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> According to the <a href="/facts/Ebers_Papyrus/7KWeHwXs">Ebers Papyrus</a>, a sulfur ointment was used in ancient <a href="/facts/Egypt/8Ttg0JwB">Egypt</a> to treat granular eyelids. (The Ebers papyrus was written c. 1550 BC, but is believed to have been copied from earlier texts.)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> Designated as one of the two elements of which all metals are composed in the <a href="/facts/Sulfur-mercury_theory_of_metals/qUTxy4kA">sulfur-mercury theory of metals</a>, first described in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's <i><a href="/facts/Sirr_al-khaliqa/3NkXtX0K">Sirr al-khaliqa</a></i> ('Secret of Creation') and in the works attributed to <a href="/facts/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan/qUTxy4kA">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a> (both 8th or 9th century).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> Designated as a universal element (one of the <i><a href="/facts/Tria_prima/U6H7KEUs">tria prima</a></i>) by <a href="/facts/Paracelsus/U6H7KEUs">Paracelsus</a> in the early 16th century. Recognized as an element by Lavoisier in 1777, which was supported by <a href="/facts/John_Dalton/oS8grQR4">John Dalton</a> in 1808 and confirmed by <a href="/facts/Joseph_Gay-Lussac/co1Ne63y">Joseph Gay-Lussac</a> and <a href="/facts/Louis_Jacques_Th%25C3%25A9nard/Le32ptEm">Louis Jacques Thénard</a> in 1810.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>80</td><td><a href="/facts/Mercury_(element)/WlxfoHva">Mercury</a></td><td>1500 BC</td><td>1500 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/Mercury_(element)/WlxfoHva">Egyptians</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Egypt/8Ttg0JwB">Egypt</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cinnabar/MUzsHjFw">Cinnabar</a> (the most common mineral form of <a href="/facts/Mercury(II)_sulfide/25P3yENk">mercury(II) sulfide</a>, HgS) was used as a pigment from prehistory, dating as far back as the 9th millennium BC in the Middle East.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> Cinnabar deposits in Turkey, exploited from 8000 years ago, also contain minor amounts of mercury metal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Found in Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>30</td><td><a href="/facts/Zinc/80b1qgk3">Zinc</a></td><td>Before 1000 BC</td><td>1000 BC</td><td><a href="/facts/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent/JoTxm18v">Indian metallurgists</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Indian_subcontinent/0XUWGXpx">Indian subcontinent</a></td><td>Used as a component of <a href="/facts/Brass/pe8EHk6x">brass</a> since antiquity (before 1000 BC) by Indian metallurgists, but its true nature was not generally understood in ancient times. A 4th century BC vase from <a href="/facts/Taxila/d1H9KJN3">Taxila</a> is made of brass with a zinc content of 34%, too high to be produced by <a href="/facts/Cementation_process/nWE1AJhA">cementation</a>, providing strong evidence that metallic zinc was known in India by the 4th century BC.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> Zinc smelting was done in China and India around 1300.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> Identified as a distinct metal in the <i><a href="/facts/Rasaratna_Samuchaya/Mwgnmydb">Rasaratna Samuccaya</a></i> around the 14th century of the Christian era<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> and by the alchemist <a href="/facts/Paracelsus/U6H7KEUs">Paracelsus</a> in 1526,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> who gave it its present name and described it as a new metal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> <a href="/facts/P._M._de_Respour/d4MeMCca">P. M. de Respour</a> isolated it from zinc oxide in 1668;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> the first detailed documentation of zinc isolation was given by <a href="/facts/Andreas_Sigismund_Marggraf/BtR4zHLt">Andreas Sigismund Marggraf</a> in 1746.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>78</td><td><a href="/facts/Platinum/qJC6lQf7">Platinum</a></td><td>c. 600 BC – AD 200</td><td>c. 600 BC – AD 200</td><td><a href="/facts/Platinum/qJC6lQf7">Pre-Columbian South Americans</a></td><td>South America</td><td>Used by <a href="/facts/Pre-Columbian/0Ntjleee">pre-Columbian</a> Americans near modern-day <a href="/facts/Esmeraldas%2c_Ecuador/yJeRDfo2">Esmeraldas, Ecuador</a> to produce artifacts of a white gold-platinum alloy, although precise dating is difficult.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> A small box from the burial of the Pharaoh <a href="/facts/Shepenupet_II/0RFvVDlH">Shepenupet II</a> (died around 650 BC) was found to be decorated with gold-platinum hieroglyphics,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> but the Egyptians may not have recognised that there was platinum in their gold.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> First European description of a metal found in <a href="/facts/South_America/PhrFEMk7">South American</a> gold was in 1557 by <a href="/facts/Julius_Caesar_Scaliger/X4zG3ddT">Julius Caesar Scaliger</a>. <a href="/facts/Antonio_de_Ulloa/WjM8hMFK">Antonio de Ulloa</a> was on an expedition to Peru in 1735, where he observed the metal; he published his findings in 1748. <a href="/facts/Charles_Wood_(ironmaster)/HK00kNF3">Charles Wood</a> also investigated the metal in 1741. First reference to it as a new metal was made by <a href="/facts/William_Brownrigg/9zLlAtKY">William Brownrigg</a> in 1750.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>33</td><td><a href="/facts/Arsenic/k1c4f44D">Arsenic</a></td><td>c. AD 300</td><td>c. AD 300</td><td>Egyptians</td><td>Middle East</td><td>The use of metallic arsenic was described by the Egyptian alchemist <a href="/facts/Zosimos_of_Panopolis/jowKprIQ">Zosimos</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> The purification of arsenic was later described in the works attributed to the Muslim alchemist <a href="/facts/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan/qUTxy4kA">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a> (c. 850–950).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Albertus_Magnus/12FJVrX9">Albertus Magnus</a> (c. 1200–1280) is typically credited with the description of the metal in the West,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> though some question his work and instead credit <a href="/facts/Vannoccio_Biringuccio/Dnodu97u">Vannoccio Biringuccio</a>, whose <i>De la pirotechnia</i> (1540) distinguishes <a href="/facts/Orpiment/RKzNkAYl">orpiment</a> from crystalline arsenic. The first to unquestionably have prepared metallic arsenic was <a href="/facts/Johann_Schr%25C3%25B6der_(physician)/SpMlp8NE">Johann Schröder</a> in 1641. Recognised as an element after Lavoisier's definition in 1787.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>83</td><td><a href="/facts/Bismuth/75FLjkoX">Bismuth</a></td><td>c. 1500<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a></td><td>c. 1500</td><td>European alchemists and <a href="/facts/Inca/GjNowI6t">Inca</a> civilisation</td><td>Europe and South America</td><td>Bismuth was known since ancient times, but often confused with tin and lead, which are chemically similar. The <a href="/facts/Incas/GjNowI6t">Incas</a> used bismuth (along with the usual copper and tin) in a special <a href="/facts/Bismuth_bronze/lNbHEQTw">bronze alloy</a> for knives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Georgius_Agricola/FXprFXAK">Agricola</a> (1530 and 1546) states that bismuth is a distinct metal in a family of metals including tin and lead. This was based on observation of the metals and their physical properties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> Miners in the age of alchemy also gave bismuth the name <i><i>tectum argenti</i>,</i> or "silver being made" in the sense of silver still in the process of being formed within the Earth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> Beginning with <a href="/facts/Johann_Heinrich_Pott/M8wapl1L">Johann Heinrich Pott</a> in 1738,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele/kcKBwyXa">Carl Wilhelm Scheele</a>, and <a href="/facts/Torbern_Olof_Bergman/PssYPozl">Torbern Olof Bergman</a>, the distinctness of lead and bismuth became clear, and <a href="/facts/Claude_Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Geoffroy/7cjxKkUW">Claude François Geoffroy</a> demonstrated in 1753 that this metal is distinct from lead and tin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="modern-discoveries">Modern discoveries</h2> <p>For 18th-century discoveries, around the time that <a href="/facts/Antoine_Lavoisier/UheVQrhu">Antoine Lavoisier</a> first questioned the <a href="/facts/Phlogiston/6PDveBmv">phlogiston</a> theory, the recognition of a new "earth" has been regarded as being equivalent to the discovery of a new element (as was the general practice then). For some elements (e.g. Be, B, Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Mn, Co, Ni, Zr, Mo),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> this presents further difficulties as their compounds were widely known since medieval or even ancient times, even though the elements themselves were not. Since the true nature of those compounds was sometimes only gradually discovered, it is sometimes very difficult to name one specific discoverer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> In such cases the first publication on their chemistry is noted, and a longer explanation given in the notes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2">Z</th><th rowspan="2">Element</th><th colspan="2">Observed</th><th colspan="2">Isolated (widely known)</th><th rowspan="2">Notes</th></tr><tr><th>Year</th><th>By</th><th>Year</th><th>By</th></tr><tr><td>15</td><td><a href="/facts/Phosphorus/27xCeIqs">Phosphorus</a></td><td>1669</td><td><a href="/facts/Hennig_Brand/4s9Mt3IL">H. Brand</a></td><td>1669</td><td>H. Brand</td><td>Prepared and isolated from urine, it was the first element whose discovery date and discoverer are recorded.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> Its name first appears in print in the work of Georg Kaspar Kirchmayer [de] in 1676. Recognised as an element by Lavoisier.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1</td><td><a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">Hydrogen</a></td><td>1671</td><td><a href="/facts/Robert_Boyle/6tUs448C">R. Boyle</a></td><td>1671</td><td>R. Boyle</td><td>Robert Boyle produced it by reacting iron filings with dilute acid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Henry_Cavendish/UsIDwP3F">Henry Cavendish</a> in 1766 was the first to distinguish H2 from other gases.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> Lavoisier named it in 1783.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> It was the first elemental gas known.</td></tr><tr><td>11</td><td><a href="/facts/Sodium/eYuSPu2V">Sodium</a></td><td>1702</td><td><a href="/facts/Georg_Ernst_Stahl/T1RTnF97">G. E. Stahl</a></td><td>1807</td><td>H. Davy</td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Georg_Ernst_Stahl/T1RTnF97">Georg Ernst Stahl</a> obtained experimental evidence that led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Henri_Louis_Duhamel_du_Monceau/K5enqc3z">Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau</a> was able to prove this difference in 1736.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Andreas_Sigismund_Marggraf/BtR4zHLt">Andreas Sigismund Marggraf</a> again recognised the difference between <a href="/facts/Soda_ash/P6RHvIoK">soda ash</a> and <a href="/facts/Potash/4e2vBL9L">potash</a> in 1758, but not all chemists accepted his conclusion. In 1797, <a href="/facts/Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth/5DAt7l6Q">Martin Heinrich Klaproth</a> suggested the names <i>natron</i> and <i>kali</i> for the two alkalis (whence the symbols). Davy isolated sodium metal a few days after potassium, by using electrolysis on <a href="/facts/Sodium_hydroxide/xjtdYtq7">sodium hydroxide</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Potash/4e2vBL9L">potash</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> respectively.</td></tr><tr><td>19</td><td><a href="/facts/Potassium/5lcumVgo">Potassium</a></td><td>1702</td><td>G. E. Stahl</td><td>1807</td><td>H. Davy</td></tr><tr><td>27</td><td><a href="/facts/Cobalt/gqhScEw4">Cobalt</a></td><td>1735</td><td><a href="/facts/Georg_Brandt/NhDsvm5f">G. Brandt</a></td><td>1735</td><td>G. Brandt</td><td>Proved that the blue color of glass is due to a new kind of metal and not bismuth as thought previously.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>20</td><td><a href="/facts/Calcium/hf252CC0">Calcium</a></td><td>1739</td><td><a href="/facts/Johann_Heinrich_Pott/M8wapl1L">J. H. Pott</a></td><td>1808</td><td>H. Davy</td><td>Lime was known as a substance for centuries, but only in the 18th century was its chemical nature recognised. Pott recognised <i>terra calcarea</i> (calcareous earth) as an individual "earth" in his treatise of 1739. Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy suggested in 1787 that it was the oxide of an element. Davy isolated the metal electrochemically from <a href="/facts/Quicklime/Wh9C8l7j">quicklime</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>14</td><td><a href="/facts/Silicon/cgWx0hdr">Silicon</a></td><td>1739</td><td>J. H. Pott</td><td>1823</td><td><a href="/facts/J%25C3%25B6ns_Jakob_Berzelius/HakSv3sP">J. Berzelius</a></td><td>Silicon compounds (rock crystals and glass) were known to the ancients, but its chemical investigation dates only to the 17th century. <a href="/facts/Johann_Joachim_Becher/GagvkMaV">Johann Joachim Becher</a> (of the <a href="/facts/Phlogiston_theory/6PDveBmv">phlogiston theory</a>) identified silica as the <i>terra vitrescibilis</i>, and <a href="/facts/Johann_Heinrich_Pott/M8wapl1L">Johann Heinrich Pott</a> recognised it as an individual "earth" in his treatise of 1739.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> Silica appears as a "simple earth" in the <i>Méthode de nomenclature chimique</i>, and in 1789 Lavoisier concluded that the element must exist.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> Davy thought in 1800 that <a href="/facts/Silica/A3WILp6J">silica</a> was a compound, not an element, and in 1808 he proved this although he could not isolate the element, and suggested the name <i>silicium</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a>: 362–364 In 1811 Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard probably prepared impure silicon,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> and Berzelius obtained the pure element in 1823.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> The name was proposed to be changed to <i>silicon</i> by <a href="/facts/Thomas_Thomson_(chemist)/abcFdxSG">Thomas Thomson</a> in 1817, and this was eventually accepted because of its analogies to boron and carbon.</td></tr><tr><td>13</td><td><a href="/facts/Aluminium/7wmR8jYE">Aluminium</a></td><td>1746</td><td>J. H. Pott</td><td>1825</td><td><a href="/facts/Hans_Christian_%25C3%2598rsted/qjmmHgIy">H.C.Ørsted</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Paracelsus/U6H7KEUs">Paracelsus</a> recognised <i>aluminis</i> as separate from vitriol in 1570, and <a href="/facts/Andreas_Libavius/magLJYAm">Andreas Libavius</a> proposed in his 1597 treatise to name the unknown earth of alum <i>alumina</i>. In 1746, <a href="/facts/Johann_Heinrich_Pott/M8wapl1L">Johann Heinrich Pott</a> published a treatise distinguishing alum from lime and chalk, and Marggraf precipitated the new earth in 1756.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> Antoine Lavoisier predicted in 1787 that <a href="/facts/Alumina/wXM9P6pI">alumina</a> is the oxide of an undiscovered element, and in 1808 Davy tried to decompose it. Although he failed, he proved Lavoisier correct and suggested the present name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a>: 354–357 Hans Christian Ørsted was the first to isolate metallic aluminium in 1825.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> However, some scientists questioned his isolation. The first undisputed isolation of aluminium was done by <a href="/facts/Friedrich_W%25C3%25B6hler/D7uh7ySD">Friedrich Wöhler</a> in 1827.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>28</td><td><a href="/facts/Nickel/KwMCHYRP">Nickel</a></td><td>1751</td><td><a href="/facts/Axel_Fredrik_Cronstedt/qrYVr6LT">F. Cronstedt</a></td><td>1751</td><td>F. Cronstedt</td><td>Found by attempting to extract copper from the mineral known as <i>fake copper</i> (now known as <a href="/facts/Niccolite/fbXdeD92">niccolite</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>12</td><td><a href="/facts/Magnesium/XyIhd2FG">Magnesium</a></td><td>1755</td><td><a href="/facts/Joseph_Black/0HD6fdYR">J. Black</a></td><td>1808</td><td><a href="/facts/Humphry_Davy/aDNRfNou">H. Davy</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Joseph_Black/0HD6fdYR">Joseph Black</a> observed that <i>magnesia alba</i> (MgO) was not <a href="/facts/Quicklime/Wh9C8l7j">quicklime</a> (CaO) in 1755; until then, both substances had been confused. Davy isolated the metal electrochemically from <a href="/facts/Magnesia_(mineral)/2E5Ld50a">magnesia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>25</td><td><a href="/facts/Manganese/j9ELd1TL">Manganese</a></td><td>1770</td><td><a href="/facts/Torbern_Olof_Bergman/PssYPozl">T. O. Bergman</a></td><td>1774</td><td><a href="/facts/Johan_Gottlieb_Gahn/qRUCGskv">J. G. Gahn</a></td><td>Torbern Olof Bergman distinguished <a href="/facts/Pyrolusite/dnS0c7NK">pyrolusite</a> as the <a href="/facts/Calx/5pv0VCod">calx</a> of a new metal, but failed to reduce it. <a href="/facts/Ignatius_Gottfred_Kaim/GYmwKpqv">Ignatius Gottfred Kaim</a> might have isolated it in 1770, but there is uncertainty on that. It was isolated by reduction of <a href="/facts/Manganese_dioxide/HRwgXlUe">manganese dioxide</a> with carbon. Given its present name in 1779 by Guyton de Morveau; prior to that it was called <i>magnesia</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>9</td><td><a href="/facts/Fluorine/YUV0Fb8m">Fluorine</a></td><td>1771</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele/kcKBwyXa">W. Scheele</a></td><td>1886</td><td><a href="/facts/Henri_Moissan/h4lE3nda">H. Moissan</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Fluorspar/y2G7C8zk">Fluorspar</a> was described by <a href="/facts/Georgius_Agricola/FXprFXAK">Georgius Agricola</a> in 1529.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a> Scheele studied fluorspar and correctly concluded it to be the lime (calcium) salt of an acid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> <i>Radical fluorique</i> appears on the list of elements in Lavoisier's <i>Traité Élémentaire de Chimie</i> from 1789, but <i>radical muriatique</i> also appears instead of chlorine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> André-Marie Ampère again predicted in 1810 that hydrofluoric acid contained an element analogous to chlorine, and between 1812 and 1886 many researchers tried to obtain it. It was eventually isolated by Moissan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>8</td><td><a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">Oxygen</a></td><td>1771</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele/kcKBwyXa">W. Scheele</a></td><td>1771</td><td>W. Scheele</td><td>Scheele obtained it by heating <a href="/facts/Mercuric_oxide/uE9xSlQe">mercuric oxide</a> and <a href="/facts/Nitrate/5AnVlYnL">nitrates</a> in 1771, but did not publish his findings until 1777. <a href="/facts/Joseph_Priestley/hQGV26wA">Joseph Priestley</a> also prepared this new <i>air</i> by 1774, but only Lavoisier recognized it as a true element; he named it in 1777.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> Before him, <a href="/facts/Sendivogius/WgCSAq7V">Sendivogius</a> had produced oxygen by heating <a href="/facts/Saltpetre/vVeaDn51">saltpetre</a>, correctly identifying it as the "food of life".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>7</td><td><a href="/facts/Nitrogen/Nf1QpGDz">Nitrogen</a></td><td>1772</td><td><a href="/facts/Daniel_Rutherford/DqCsExzA">D. Rutherford</a></td><td>1772</td><td>D. Rutherford</td><td>Rutherford discovered nitrogen while studying at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Edinburgh/L69HscH9">University of Edinburgh</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> He showed that the air in which animals had breathed, even after removal of the exhaled carbon dioxide, was no longer able to burn a candle. Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley also studied the element at about the same time, and Lavoisier named it in 1775–6.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>56</td><td><a href="/facts/Barium/IkL09XHQ">Barium</a></td><td>1772</td><td>W. Scheele</td><td>1808</td><td>H. Davy</td><td>Scheele distinguished a new earth (<a href="/facts/BaO/p28HMBrQ">BaO</a>) in <a href="/facts/Baryte/G6frVDl5">baryte</a> in 1772. He did not name his discovery; Guyton de Morveau suggested <i>barote</i> in 1782.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a> It was changed to <i>baryte</i> in the <i>Méthode de nomenclature chimique</i> of <a href="/facts/Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau/GzTxXmwH">Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau</a>, <a href="/facts/Antoine_Lavoisier/UheVQrhu">Antoine Lavoisier</a>, <a href="/facts/Claude_Louis_Berthollet/JeduoWk5">Claude Louis Berthollet</a>, and <a href="/facts/Antoine_Fran%25C3%25A7ois%2c_comte_de_Fourcroy/GjT9JwUn">Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy</a> (1787). Davy isolated the metal by <a href="/facts/Electrolysis/pU75nCDI">electrolysis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>17</td><td><a href="/facts/Chlorine/y27UwYBM">Chlorine</a></td><td>1774</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele/kcKBwyXa">W. Scheele</a></td><td>1774</td><td>W. Scheele</td><td>Obtained it from <a href="/facts/Hydrochloric_acid/HqItJlUT">hydrochloric acid</a>, but thought it was an oxide. Only in 1810 did Humphry Davy recognize it as an element.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>42</td><td><a href="/facts/Molybdenum/RX6vp2bF">Molybdenum</a></td><td>1778</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele/kcKBwyXa">W. Scheele</a></td><td>1788</td><td><a href="/facts/Peter_Jacob_Hjelm/EmhBdXjb">J. Hjelm</a></td><td>Scheele recognised the metal as a constituent of <a href="/facts/Molybdenite/jatlEkxR">molybdena</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a> Before that, Axel Cronstedt had assumed that molybdena contained a new earth in 1758.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>74</td><td><a href="/facts/Tungsten/WYwbNDYX">Tungsten</a></td><td>1781</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele/kcKBwyXa">W. Scheele</a></td><td>1783</td><td><a href="/facts/Juan_Jos%25C3%25A9_Elhuyar/kdWmEDEN">J.</a> and <a href="/facts/Fausto_Elhuyar/NM2wGVv0">F. Elhuyar</a></td><td>Scheele showed that <a href="/facts/Scheelite/Te4N0qKN">scheelite</a> (then called tungsten) was a salt of calcium with a new acid, which he called <a href="/facts/Tungstic_acid/59nFqkRz">tungstic acid</a>. The Elhuyars obtained tungstic acid from <a href="/facts/Wolframite/97Rag4Ef">wolframite</a> and reduced it with charcoal, naming the element "volfram".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a> Since that time both names, tungsten and wolfram, have been used depending on language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a> In 1949 IUPAC made wolfram the scientific name, but this was repealed after protest in 1951 in favour of recognising both names pending a further review (which never materialised). Currently only tungsten is recognised for use in English.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>52</td><td><a href="/facts/Tellurium/v7QvfIvS">Tellurium</a></td><td>1782</td><td><a href="/facts/Franz-Joseph_M%25C3%25BCller_von_Reichenstein/EX9H2Bjr">F.-J.M. von Reichenstein</a></td><td>1798</td><td><a href="/facts/Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth/5DAt7l6Q">H. Klaproth</a></td><td>Muller observed it as an impurity in gold ores from Transylvania.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a> Klaproth isolated it in 1798.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>5</td><td><a href="/facts/Boron/Pmwgd7Mf">Boron</a></td><td>1787</td><td><a href="/facts/Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau/GzTxXmwH">L. Guyton de Morveau</a>, <a href="/facts/Antoine_Lavoisier/UheVQrhu">A. Lavoisier</a>, <a href="/facts/Claude_Louis_Berthollet/JeduoWk5">C. L. Berthollet</a>, and <a href="/facts/Antoine_Fran%25C3%25A7ois%2c_comte_de_Fourcroy/GjT9JwUn">A. de Fourcroy</a></td><td>1809</td><td><a href="/facts/Humphry_Davy/aDNRfNou">H. Davy</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Borax/IQrXRJ3N">Borax</a> was known from ancient times. In 1787, <i>radical boracique</i> appeared in the <i>Méthode de nomenclature chimique</i> of <a href="/facts/Louis-Bernard_Guyton_de_Morveau/GzTxXmwH">Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau</a>, <a href="/facts/Antoine_Lavoisier/UheVQrhu">Antoine Lavoisier</a>, <a href="/facts/Claude_Louis_Berthollet/JeduoWk5">Claude Louis Berthollet</a>, and <a href="/facts/Antoine_Fran%25C3%25A7ois%2c_comte_de_Fourcroy/GjT9JwUn">Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a> It also appears in Lavoisier's <i>Traité Élémentaire de Chimie</i> from 1789.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a> In 1808, Lussac and Thénard announced a new element in <a href="/facts/Boric_acid/0so68XIK">sedative salt</a> and named it <i>bore</i>. Davy announced the isolation of a new substance from boracic acid in 1809, naming it <i>boracium</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a> As the element turned out not to be a metal, he revised his proposal to <i>boron</i> in 1812.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127"><sup>127</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>1789</td><td colspan="1"><a href="/facts/Antoine_Lavoisier/UheVQrhu">A. Lavoisier</a></td><td></td><td></td><td>Lavoisier writes the first modern list of chemical elements – containing 33 elements including light and heat but omitting Na, K (he was unsure of whether soda and potash without carbonic acid, i.e. Na2O and K2O, are simple substances or compounds like NH3),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128"><sup>128</sup></a> Te; some elements were listed in the table as unextracted "radicals" (Cl, F, B) or as oxides (Ca, Mg, Ba, Al, Si).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129"><sup>129</sup></a> He also redefines the term "element".</td></tr><tr><td>40</td><td><a href="/facts/Zirconium/y7gsoQFz">Zirconium</a></td><td>1789</td><td><a href="/facts/Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth/5DAt7l6Q">H. Klaproth</a></td><td>1824</td><td><a href="/facts/J%25C3%25B6ns_Jakob_Berzelius/HakSv3sP">J. Berzelius</a></td><td>Martin Heinrich Klaproth identified a new oxide in <a href="/facts/Zircon/84APfbLt">zircon</a> in 1789,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130"><sup>130</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131"><sup>131</sup></a> and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132"><sup>132</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133"><sup>133</sup></a>: 360–362 </td></tr><tr><td>92</td><td><a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">Uranium</a></td><td>1789</td><td><a href="/facts/Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth/5DAt7l6Q">H. Klaproth</a></td><td>1841</td><td><a href="/facts/Eug%25C3%25A8ne-Melchior_P%25C3%25A9ligot/a1QVzdzn">E.-M. Péligot</a></td><td>Klaproth mistakenly identified a <a href="/facts/Uranium_oxide/Re5lMJbS">uranium oxide</a> obtained from <a href="/facts/Pitchblende/EsEwMErJ">pitchblende</a> as the element itself and named it after the recently discovered planet <a href="/facts/Uranus/x7YwT1ar">Uranus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134"><sup>134</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135"><sup>135</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>38</td><td><a href="/facts/Strontium/ABaA5qQK">Strontium</a></td><td>1790</td><td><a href="/facts/Adair_Crawford/2u8PTv7e">A. Crawford</a></td><td>1808</td><td>H. Davy</td><td><a href="/facts/Adair_Crawford/2u8PTv7e">Adair Crawford</a> in 1790 found that <a href="/facts/Strontianite/wXCyHRNf">strontianite</a> (strontium carbonate) and <a href="/facts/Witherite/UVEfzDxT">witherite</a> (barium carbonate) have different chemical properties, and suspected strontianite contained a new earth. Before him, strontianite is seen as a type of witherite. Strontium was eventually isolated electrochemically in 1808 by Davy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136"><sup>136</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>22</td><td><a href="/facts/Titanium/53ArnDoy">Titanium</a></td><td>1791</td><td><a href="/facts/William_Gregor/HQcIrgXp">W. Gregor</a></td><td>1875</td><td>D. K. Kirillov<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137"><sup>137</sup></a></td><td>Gregor found an oxide of a new metal in <a href="/facts/Ilmenite/fh2eXgpo">ilmenite</a>; Klaproth independently discovered the element in <a href="/facts/Rutile/qwJH5ElN">rutile</a> in 1795 and named it. In 1825, Jöns Jacob Berzelius claimed isolation of metallic titanium, but his substance did not react with hydrofluoric acid, whereas titanium does. In 1910, <a href="/facts/Matthew_A._Hunter/fGj6R8pP">Matthew A. Hunter</a> obtained metallic titanium of 99% purity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138"><sup>138</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139"><sup>139</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>39</td><td><a href="/facts/Yttrium/BlX6rj99">Yttrium</a></td><td>1794</td><td><a href="/facts/Johan_Gadolin/dMFU1Lna">J. Gadolin</a></td><td>1843</td><td><a href="/facts/Heinrich_Rose/Dq5okQCt">H. Rose</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Johan_Gadolin/dMFU1Lna">Johan Gadolin</a> discovered the earth in <a href="/facts/Gadolinite/kahQI57c">gadolinite</a> in 1794. He did not name his discovery, but <a href="/facts/Anders_Gustaf_Ekeberg/pFLBthwv">Anders Gustaf Ekeberg</a> did so when he confirmed it in 1797.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140"><sup>140</sup></a> In 1808, Davy showed that yttria is a metallic oxide, although he could not isolate the metal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141"><sup>141</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142"><sup>142</sup></a>: 364–366 Wöhler mistakenly thought he had isolated the metal in 1828 from a volatile chloride he supposed to be yttrium chloride,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143"><sup>143</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144"><sup>144</sup></a> but Rose proved otherwise in 1843 and correctly isolated the element himself that year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145"><sup>145</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>24</td><td><a href="/facts/Chromium/6sVk6Uu7">Chromium</a></td><td>1797</td><td><a href="/facts/Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin/ygSb9h9Q">N. Vauquelin</a></td><td>1798</td><td><i>N. Vauquelin</i></td><td>Vauquelin analysed the composition of <a href="/facts/Crocoite/g7yja8z8">crocoite</a> ore in 1797, and later isolated the metal by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146"><sup>146</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147"><sup>147</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148"><sup>148</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>4</td><td><a href="/facts/Beryllium/dv295voP">Beryllium</a></td><td>1798</td><td><a href="/facts/Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin/ygSb9h9Q">N. Vauquelin</a></td><td>1828</td><td><a href="/facts/Friedrich_W%25C3%25B6hler/D7uh7ySD">F. Wöhler</a> and <a href="/facts/Antoine_Bussy/bhXcWMhg">A. Bussy</a></td><td>Vauquelin discovered the oxide in <a href="/facts/Beryl/Fl7q1Hl9">beryl</a> and emerald in 1798, and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149"><sup>149</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150"><sup>150</sup></a>: 358–359 Vauquelin was uncertain about the name to give to the oxide: in 1798 he called it <i>la terre du beril</i>, but the journal editors named it <i>glucine</i> after the sweet taste of beryllium compounds (which are highly toxic). <a href="/facts/Johann_Heinrich_Friedrich_Link/AcGyW3Nc">Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link</a> proposed in 1799 to change the name from <i>Glucine</i> to <i>Beryllerde</i> or <i>Berylline</i>, a suggestion taken up by Klaproth in 1800 in the form <i>beryllina</i>. Klaproth had independently worked on beryl and emerald and likewise concluded that a new element was present. The name <i>beryllium</i> for the element was first used by Wöhler upon its isolation (Davy used the name <i>glucium</i>). Both names <i>beryllium</i> and <i>glucinium</i> were used (the latter mostly in France) until IUPAC decided on the name beryllium in 1949.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151"><sup>151</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>23</td><td><a href="/facts/Vanadium/UvKkKTSm">Vanadium</a></td><td>1801</td><td><a href="/facts/Andr%25C3%25A9s_Manuel_del_R%25C3%25ADo/JtjulKWC">A. M. del Río</a></td><td>1867</td><td><a href="/facts/Henry_Enfield_Roscoe/sj0mfCbv">H. E. Roscoe</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Andr%25C3%25A9s_Manuel_del_R%25C3%25ADo/JtjulKWC">Andrés Manuel del Río</a> found the metal (calling it <i>erythronium</i>) in <a href="/facts/Vanadinite/1ycny5le">vanadinite</a> in 1801, but the claim was rejected after <a href="/facts/Hippolyte_Victor_Collet-Descotils/aXCoz77U">Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils</a> dismissed it as chromium based on erroneous and superficial testing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152"><sup>152</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Nils_Gabriel_Sefstr%25C3%25B6m/d7Q0twnJ">Nils Gabriel Sefström</a> rediscovered the element in 1830 and named it vanadium. <a href="/facts/Friedrich_W%25C3%25B6hler/D7uh7ySD">Friedrich Wöhler</a> then showed that vanadium was identical to erythronium and thus that del Río had been right in the first place.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153"><sup>153</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154"><sup>154</sup></a> Del Río then argued passionately that his old claim be recognised, but the element kept the name vanadium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155"><sup>155</sup></a> Roscoe eventually produced the metal in 1867 by reduction of <a href="/facts/Vanadium(II)_chloride/2vom4WXE">vanadium(II) chloride</a>, VCl2, with <a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">hydrogen</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156"><sup>156</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>41</td><td><a href="/facts/Niobium/3zNI8AKp">Niobium</a></td><td>1801</td><td><a href="/facts/Charles_Hatchett/ShhsahJz">C. Hatchett</a></td><td>1864</td><td><a href="/facts/Christian_Wilhelm_Blomstrand/lNxTv7QJ">W. Blomstrand</a></td><td>Hatchett found the element in <a href="/facts/Columbite/TLtIHgpR">columbite</a> ore and named it <i>columbium</i>. In 1809, <a href="/facts/William_Hyde_Wollaston/U0MXYKA3">W. H. Wollaston</a> claimed that columbium and tantalum are identical, which proved to be false.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157"><sup>157</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Heinrich_Rose/Dq5okQCt">Heinrich Rose</a> proved in 1844 that the element is distinct from tantalum, and renamed it <i>niobium</i>. American scientists generally used the name <i>columbium</i>, while European ones used <i>niobium</i>. Niobium was officially accepted by IUPAC in 1949.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158"><sup>158</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>73</td><td><a href="/facts/Tantalum/VwaxMm33">Tantalum</a></td><td>1802</td><td><a href="/facts/Anders_Gustaf_Ekeberg/pFLBthwv">G. Ekeberg</a></td><td>1864</td><td><a href="/facts/Jean_Charles_Galissard_de_Marignac/Iqe4UAHX">J.C.G. de Marignac</a></td><td>Ekeberg found another element in minerals similar to columbite, and named it after <a href="/facts/Tantalus/dEVcNBCa">Tantalus</a> from Greek mythology because of its inability to be dissolved by acids (just as Tantalus was tantalised by water that receded when he tried to drink it).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159"><sup>159</sup></a> In 1809, <a href="/facts/William_Hyde_Wollaston/U0MXYKA3">W. H. Wollaston</a> claimed that columbium and tantalum are identical, which proved to be false.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160"><sup>160</sup></a> In 1844, Heinrich Rose proved that the elements were distinct and renamed columbium to niobium (Niobe is the daughter of Tantalus).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161"><sup>161</sup></a> De Marignac's sample contained impurities; relatively pure tantalum was produced by <a href="/facts/Werner_von_Bolton/SKWWXukG">Werner von Bolton</a> in 1903.</td></tr><tr><td>46</td><td><a href="/facts/Palladium/P7y0ESWf">Palladium</a></td><td>1802</td><td><a href="/facts/William_Hyde_Wollaston/U0MXYKA3">W. H. Wollaston</a></td><td>1802</td><td>W. H. Wollaston</td><td>Wollaston discovered it in samples of platinum from South America, but did not publish his results immediately. He had intended to name it after the newly discovered <a href="/facts/Asteroid/g7Ulr1VB">asteroid</a>, <a href="/facts/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)/yIVEMYtG">Ceres</a>, but by the time he published his results in 1804, cerium had taken that name. Wollaston named it after the more recently discovered asteroid <a href="/facts/2_Pallas/onjUgYtA">Pallas</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162"><sup>162</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>58</td><td><a href="/facts/Cerium/a7UjMBQ6">Cerium</a></td><td>1803</td><td><a href="/facts/Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth/5DAt7l6Q">H. Klaproth</a>, J. Berzelius, and <a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Hisinger/09AEPVFQ">W. Hisinger</a></td><td>1875</td><td><a href="/facts/William_Francis_Hillebrand/JqKDg9q6">W. F. Hillebrand</a> and T. H. Norton</td><td>Berzelius and Hisinger discovered a new earth in <a href="/facts/Cerite/KJvUo0Er">cerite</a>, considered it to be an oxide of a new element and named the element after the newly discovered asteroid (then considered a planet), Ceres. Klaproth discovered it simultaneously and independently in some tantalum samples.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163"><sup>163</sup></a> Mosander (1825) and Wöhler (1867) claimed to have isolated metallic cerium, but their samples were rather impure.</td></tr><tr><td>76</td><td><a href="/facts/Osmium/1TjXD69n">Osmium</a></td><td>1803</td><td><a href="/facts/Smithson_Tennant/l9PB5HCw">S. Tennant</a></td><td>1803</td><td>S. Tennant</td><td rowspan="2">Tennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164"><sup>164</sup></a> and published the iridium results in 1804.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165"><sup>165</sup></a> Collet-Descotils also found iridium the same year, but not osmium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166"><sup>166</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>77</td><td><a href="/facts/Iridium/cB4n6MbQ">Iridium</a></td><td>1803</td><td><a href="/facts/Smithson_Tennant/l9PB5HCw">S. Tennant</a> and <a href="/facts/Hippolyte-Victor_Collet-Descotils/aXCoz77U">H.-V. Collet-Descotils</a></td><td>1803</td><td>S. Tennant</td></tr><tr><td>45</td><td><a href="/facts/Rhodium/xmBd9aFG">Rhodium</a></td><td>1804</td><td><a href="/facts/William_Hyde_Wollaston/U0MXYKA3">H. Wollaston</a></td><td>1804</td><td>H. Wollaston</td><td>Wollaston discovered and isolated it from crude platinum samples from South America.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167"><sup>167</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>53</td><td><a href="/facts/Iodine/JlfMecMf">Iodine</a></td><td>1811</td><td><a href="/facts/Bernard_Courtois/xy0jl3lA">B. Courtois</a></td><td>1811</td><td>B. Courtois</td><td>Courtois discovered it in the ashes of <a href="/facts/Seaweed/thLwLBk8">seaweed</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168"><sup>168</sup></a> The name <i>iode</i> was given in French by Gay-Lussac and published in 1813.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169"><sup>169</sup></a> Davy gave it the English name <i>iodine</i> in 1814.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170"><sup>170</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td><a href="/facts/Lithium/7vXX6BWA">Lithium</a></td><td>1817</td><td><a href="/facts/Johan_August_Arfwedson/5Pz2shSG">A. Arfwedson</a></td><td>1821</td><td><a href="/facts/William_Thomas_Brande/XAgLqFQE">W. T. Brande</a></td><td>Arfwedson, a student of Berzelius, discovered the alkali in <a href="/facts/Petalite/73EYXPCj">petalite</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171"><sup>171</sup></a> Brande isolated it electrolytically from <a href="/facts/Lithium_oxide/XgwmJIzA">lithium oxide</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172"><sup>172</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>48</td><td><a href="/facts/Cadmium/wXkV2eIX">Cadmium</a></td><td>1817</td><td><a href="/facts/Karl_Samuel_Leberecht_Hermann/bcBFbgj6">S. L Hermann</a>, <a href="/facts/Friedrich_Stromeyer/llcymrRj">F. Stromeyer</a>, and J.C.H. Roloff</td><td>1817</td><td>S. L Hermann, F. Stromeyer, and J.C.H. Roloff</td><td>All three found an unknown metal in a sample of <a href="/facts/Zinc_oxide/P7sTyDez">zinc oxide</a> from Silesia, but the name that Stromeyer gave became the accepted one.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173"><sup>173</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>34</td><td><a href="/facts/Selenium/k975NApC">Selenium</a></td><td>1817</td><td><a href="/facts/J%25C3%25B6ns_Jakob_Berzelius/HakSv3sP">J. Berzelius</a> and <a href="/facts/Johann_Gottlieb_Gahn/qRUCGskv">G. Gahn</a></td><td>1817</td><td>J. Berzelius and G. Gahn</td><td>While working with lead they discovered a substance that they thought was tellurium, but realized after more investigation that it was different.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174"><sup>174</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>35</td><td><a href="/facts/Bromine/oLfj3C7D">Bromine</a></td><td>1825</td><td><a href="/facts/Antoine_J%25C3%25A9r%25C3%25B4me_Balard/F35HurK6">J. Balard</a> and <a href="/facts/Carl_Jacob_L%25C3%25B6wig/7X8YeNCm">C. Löwig</a></td><td>1825</td><td>J. Balard and C. Löwig</td><td>They both discovered the element in the autumn of 1825. Balard published his results the next year,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175"><sup>175</sup></a> but Löwig did not publish until 1827.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176"><sup>176</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>90</td><td><a href="/facts/Thorium/ysdWH470">Thorium</a></td><td>1829</td><td><a href="/facts/J%25C3%25B6ns_Jakob_Berzelius/HakSv3sP">J. Berzelius</a></td><td>1914</td><td>D. Lely, Jr. and L. Hamburger</td><td>Berzelius obtained a new earth (the oxide of a new element) in <a href="/facts/Thorite/R8V3QAob">thorite</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177"><sup>177</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>57</td><td><a href="/facts/Lanthanum/Uhmmy1sB">Lanthanum</a></td><td>1838</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Gustaf_Mosander/nlB4bhRp">G. Mosander</a></td><td>1904</td><td>W. Muthmann, L. Weiss</td><td>Mosander found a new earth in samples of ceria in 1838.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178"><sup>178</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>60</td><td><a href="/facts/Neodymium/GzDkTIoI">Neodymium</a></td><td>1841</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Gustaf_Mosander/nlB4bhRp">G. Mosander</a></td><td>1901</td><td>W. Muthmann, H. Hofer, L. Weiss</td><td>Discovered by Mosander and called didymium. Carl Auer von Welsbach later split it into two elements, praseodymium and neodymium. Neodymium had formed the greater part of the old didymium and received the prefix "neo-".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179"><sup>179</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180"><sup>180</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>68</td><td><a href="/facts/Erbium/XEJlgJcx">Erbium</a></td><td>1843</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Gustaf_Mosander/nlB4bhRp">G. Mosander</a></td><td>1934</td><td><a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Klemm/zlxSUj2e">W. Klemm</a> and H. Bommer</td><td rowspan="2">Mosander managed to split the old yttria into yttria proper, <a href="/facts/Erbia/KsETktYt">erbia</a>, and <a href="/facts/Terbia/DoHubI0n">terbia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181"><sup>181</sup></a> The names underwent some confusion: Mosander's erbia was yellow and his terbia was red. But in 1860, <a href="/facts/Nils_Johan_Berlin/MYzkQjpp">Nils Johan Berlin</a> could only find the rose-coloured earth, confusingly renamed as erbia, and questioned the existence of the yellow earth. <a href="/facts/Marc_Delafontaine/ffzDsuEV">Marc Delafontaine</a> adopted Berlin's nomenclature where erbia was the rose-coloured earth, but proved in 1878 that the yellow earth also existed. At the prompting of <a href="/facts/Jean_Charles_Galissard_de_Marignac/Iqe4UAHX">Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac</a>, he named the yellow earth terbia; thus Mosander's names were swapped from his original choices.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182"><sup>182</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>65</td><td><a href="/facts/Terbium/ICF3PMED">Terbium</a></td><td>1843</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Gustaf_Mosander/nlB4bhRp">G. Mosander</a></td><td>1937</td><td><a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Klemm/zlxSUj2e">W. Klemm</a> and H. Bommer</td></tr><tr><td>44</td><td><a href="/facts/Ruthenium/uzCm4ufn">Ruthenium</a></td><td>1844</td><td><a href="/facts/Karl_Ernst_Claus/EtpcYxS1">K. Claus</a></td><td>1844</td><td><i>K. Claus</i></td><td><a href="/facts/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Osann/eDUk7HNf">Gottfried Wilhelm Osann</a> thought that he found three new metals in Russian platinum samples in 1826, which he named polinium, pluranium, and ruthenium in 1828. But his results were questioned and he did not have enough quantities to isolate them, so he withdrew his claims in 1829.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183"><sup>183</sup></a> However, in 1844 <a href="/facts/Karl_Ernst_Claus/EtpcYxS1">Karl Karlovich Klaus</a> confirmed that there was one new metal, and reused Osann's name "ruthenium".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184"><sup>184</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>55</td><td><a href="/facts/Caesium/dXKN1S5k">Caesium</a></td><td>1860</td><td><a href="/facts/Robert_Bunsen/HYqSh9tH">R. Bunsen</a> and <a href="/facts/Gustav_Kirchhoff/Ygfzlywy">R. Kirchhoff</a></td><td>1882</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Setterberg/ySxTgoMo">C. Setterberg</a></td><td>Bunsen and Kirchhoff were the first to suggest finding new elements by <a href="/facts/Spectroscopy/mj71FuNK">spectrum analysis</a>. They discovered caesium by its two blue <a href="/facts/Emission_line/HuI4Bj5f">emission lines</a> in a sample of <a href="/facts/D%25C3%25BCrkheim/u3elaVk7">Dürkheim</a> <a href="/facts/Mineral_water/90W9637u">mineral water</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185"><sup>185</sup></a> The pure metal was eventually isolated in 1882 by Setterberg.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186"><sup>186</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>37</td><td><a href="/facts/Rubidium/KDHSe2HM">Rubidium</a></td><td>1861</td><td><a href="/facts/Robert_Bunsen/HYqSh9tH">R. Bunsen</a> and <a href="/facts/Gustav_Kirchhoff/Ygfzlywy">G. R. Kirchhoff</a></td><td>1863</td><td>R. Bunsen</td><td>Bunsen and Kirchhoff discovered it just a few months after caesium, by observing new spectral lines in the mineral <a href="/facts/Lepidolite/tp55Ysme">lepidolite</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187"><sup>187</sup></a> The metal was isolated by Bunsen around 1863.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188"><sup>188</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>81</td><td><a href="/facts/Thallium/v35pGMJB">Thallium</a></td><td>1861</td><td><a href="/facts/William_Crookes/q8U8VVwR">W. Crookes</a></td><td>1862</td><td><a href="/facts/Claude-Auguste_Lamy/rHGVVGHW">C.-A. Lamy</a></td><td>Shortly after the discovery of rubidium, Crookes found a new green line in a selenium sample; later that year, Lamy found the element to be metallic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189"><sup>189</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>49</td><td><a href="/facts/Indium/zRq3stVb">Indium</a></td><td>1863</td><td><a href="/facts/Ferdinand_Reich/hNJTDFVx">F. Reich</a> and <a href="/facts/Hieronymous_Theodor_Richter/QoS7mnYj">T. Richter</a></td><td>1864</td><td>T. Richter</td><td>Reich and Richter first identified it in <a href="/facts/Sphalerite/5NumvnzR">sphalerite</a> by its bright indigo-blue spectroscopic emission line.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190"><sup>190</sup></a> Richter isolated the metal the next year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191"><sup>191</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>2</td><td><a href="/facts/Helium/yRul93TG">Helium</a></td><td>1868</td><td><a href="/facts/Joseph_Norman_Lockyer/Uh3no29f">N. Lockyer</a></td><td>1895</td><td><a href="/facts/Sir_William_Ramsay/fGzWlHlP">W. Ramsay</a>, <a href="/facts/Per_Theodor_Cleve/0KGIUxKW">T. Cleve</a>, and <a href="/facts/Nils_Langlet/4kw7Hkfl">N. Langlet</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pierre_Janssen/nqYWwsIa">P. Janssen</a> and Lockyer observed independently a yellow line in the solar spectrum that did not match any other element. However, only Lockyer made the correct conclusion that it was due to a new element. This was the first observation of a <a href="/facts/Noble_gas/j0yHMEAE">noble gas</a>, located in the Sun. Years later after the isolation of argon on Earth, Ramsay, Cleve, and Langlet observed independently helium trapped in <a href="/facts/Cleveite/HVbWXInY">cleveite</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192"><sup>192</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>1869</td><td><a href="/facts/Dmitri_Mendeleev/xdouRrx8">D. I. Mendeleev</a></td><td></td><td></td><td>Mendeleev arranges the 63 elements known at that time (omitting terbium, as chemists were unsure of its existence, and helium, as it was not found on Earth) into the first modern periodic table and correctly predicts several others.</td></tr><tr><td>31</td><td><a href="/facts/Gallium/EucevDs9">Gallium</a></td><td>1875</td><td><a href="/facts/Paul_Emile_Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran/XT2EnBwI">P. E. L. de Boisbaudran</a></td><td>1878</td><td>P. E. L. de Boisbaudran and <a href="/facts/Emil_Jungfleisch/Ch5ILAxn">E. Jungfleisch</a></td><td>Boisbaudran observed on a pyrenea <a href="/facts/Sphalerite/5NumvnzR">blende</a> sample some emission lines corresponding to the eka-aluminium that was <a href="/facts/Mendeleev%2527s_predicted_elements/C4vgW0uy">predicted</a> by Mendeleev in 1871. He and Jungfleisch isolated the metal three years later by electrolysis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193"><sup>193</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194"><sup>194</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195"><sup>195</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>70</td><td><a href="/facts/Ytterbium/3lerM9uf">Ytterbium</a></td><td>1878</td><td><a href="/facts/Jean_Charles_Galissard_de_Marignac/Iqe4UAHX">J.C.G. de Marignac</a></td><td>1936</td><td><a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Klemm/zlxSUj2e">W. Klemm</a> and H. Bommer</td><td>On 22 October 1878, Marignac reported splitting erbia (Mosander's terbia) into two new earths, erbia proper and <a href="/facts/Ytterbia/atuBvd4w">ytterbia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196"><sup>196</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>67</td><td><a href="/facts/Holmium/C73kJVtp">Holmium</a></td><td>1878</td><td><a href="/facts/Jacques-Louis_Soret/uYAGlgaQ">J.-L. Soret</a> and <a href="/facts/Marc_Delafontaine/ffzDsuEV">M. Delafontaine</a></td><td>1939</td><td>H. Bommer</td><td>Soret found it in <a href="/facts/Samarskite/q79Axajv">samarskite</a> and later, Per Teodor Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium. Delafontaine's <i>philippium</i> turned out to be identical to what Soret found.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197"><sup>197</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198"><sup>198</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>21</td><td><a href="/facts/Scandium/TJRt1chg">Scandium</a></td><td>1879</td><td><a href="/facts/Lars_Fredrik_Nilson/wBbjuQtw">F. Nilson</a></td><td>1937</td><td>W. Fischer, K. Brünger, H. Grieneisen<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199"><sup>199</sup></a></td><td>Nilson split Marignac's ytterbia into pure ytterbia and a new element that matched Mendeleev's 1871 predicted eka-boron.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200"><sup>200</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>69</td><td><a href="/facts/Thulium/G2905xhd">Thulium</a></td><td>1879</td><td>T. Cleve</td><td>1936</td><td><a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Klemm/zlxSUj2e">W. Klemm</a> and H. Bommer</td><td>Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201"><sup>201</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>62</td><td><a href="/facts/Samarium/09K3kl93">Samarium</a></td><td>1879</td><td>P.E.L. de Boisbaudran</td><td>1903</td><td>W. Muthmann</td><td>Boisbaudran noted a new earth in samarskite and named it samaria after the mineral.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202"><sup>202</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>64</td><td><a href="/facts/Gadolinium/eLYUeScu">Gadolinium</a></td><td>1880</td><td>J. C. G. de Marignac</td><td>1935</td><td><a href="/facts/F%25C3%25A9lix_Trombe/GWqaumpU">Félix Trombe</a></td><td>Marignac initially observed the new earth in terbia, and later Boisbaudran obtained a pure sample from samarskite.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203"><sup>203</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>59</td><td><a href="/facts/Praseodymium/2lnRJ9dH">Praseodymium</a></td><td>1885</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Auer_von_Welsbach/b1654JpC">C. A. von Welsbach</a></td><td>1904</td><td>W. Muthmann, L. Weiss</td><td>Carl Auer von Welsbach discovered it in Mosander's didymia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204"><sup>204</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>32</td><td><a href="/facts/Germanium/wtoALHGs">Germanium</a></td><td>1886</td><td><a href="/facts/Clemens_Winkler/l4t6JX9l">C. A. Winkler</a></td><td>1886</td><td>C. A. Winkler</td><td>In February 1886 Winkler found in <a href="/facts/Argyrodite/BIYbK4RG">argyrodite</a> the eka-silicon that Mendeleev had predicted in 1871.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:205" href="#fn:205"><sup>205</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>66</td><td><a href="/facts/Dysprosium/eMev6zGS">Dysprosium</a></td><td>1886</td><td>P.E.L. de Boisbaudran</td><td>1937</td><td><a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Klemm/zlxSUj2e">W. Klemm</a> and H. Bommer</td><td>De Boisbaudran found a new earth in erbia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:206" href="#fn:206"><sup>206</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>18</td><td><a href="/facts/Argon/QX6NRH6d">Argon</a></td><td>1894</td><td><a href="/facts/John_Strutt%2c_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh/HcJyYdk5">Lord Rayleigh</a> and <a href="/facts/William_Ramsay/fGzWlHlP">W. Ramsay</a></td><td>1894</td><td>Lord Rayleigh and W. Ramsay</td><td>They discovered the gas by comparing the molecular weights of nitrogen prepared by <a href="/facts/Liquefaction_of_gases/sHp15Rbe">liquefaction</a> from air and nitrogen prepared by chemical means. It is the first noble gas to be isolated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:207" href="#fn:207"><sup>207</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>63</td><td><a href="/facts/Europium/dqmBm1vr">Europium</a></td><td>1896</td><td><a href="/facts/Eug%25C3%25A8ne-Anatole_Demar%25C3%25A7ay/aAwPzpXL">E.-A. Demarçay</a></td><td>1937</td><td><a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Klemm/zlxSUj2e">W. Klemm</a> and H. Bommer</td><td>Demarçay found spectral lines of a new element in Lecoq's samarium, provisionally designated the element as Σ, and gave it its present name in 1901.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:208" href="#fn:208"><sup>208</sup></a> Metallic europium was isolated in 1937.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:209" href="#fn:209"><sup>209</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>36</td><td><a href="/facts/Krypton/llkNlCke">Krypton</a></td><td>1898</td><td>W. Ramsay and <a href="/facts/Morris_W._Travers/oKyfxmCX">W. Travers</a></td><td>1898</td><td><i>W. Ramsay and W. Travers</i></td><td>On May 30, 1898, Ramsay separated a noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:210" href="#fn:210"><sup>210</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>10</td><td><a href="/facts/Neon/5bF1FwGL">Neon</a></td><td>1898</td><td>W. Ramsay and W. Travers</td><td>1898</td><td><i>W. Ramsay and W. Travers</i></td><td>In June 1898 Ramsay separated a new noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:211" href="#fn:211"><sup>211</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>54</td><td><a href="/facts/Xenon/9E3XR69R">Xenon</a></td><td>1898</td><td>W. Ramsay and W. Travers</td><td>1898</td><td><i>W. Ramsay and W. Travers</i></td><td>After neon, Ramsay separated a third noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:212" href="#fn:212"><sup>212</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:213" href="#fn:213"><sup>213</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>84</td><td><a href="/facts/Polonium/G4rzsyjP">Polonium</a></td><td>1898</td><td><a href="/facts/Pierre_Curie/Sbtlw2xj">P.</a> and <a href="/facts/Marie_Curie/EGjeuJ14">M. Curie</a></td><td>1946</td><td>W. H. Beamer and C. R. Maxwell</td><td>In an experiment done on 13 July 1898, the Curies noted an increased radioactivity in the uranium obtained from <a href="/facts/Pitchblende/EsEwMErJ">pitchblende</a>, which they ascribed to an unknown element. Independently rediscovered and isolated in 1902 by Marckwald, who named it radiotellurium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:214" href="#fn:214"><sup>214</sup></a> Pure polonium was obtained in 1946.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:215" href="#fn:215"><sup>215</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>88</td><td><a href="/facts/Radium/VWo5gkzn">Radium</a></td><td>1898</td><td><a href="/facts/Pierre_Curie/Sbtlw2xj">P.</a> and <a href="/facts/Marie_Curie/EGjeuJ14">M. Curie</a></td><td>1910</td><td>Marie Curie and <a href="/facts/Andr%25C3%25A9-Louis_Debierne/RAHKrFs6">André-Louis Debierne</a></td><td>The Curies reported on 26 December 1898, a new element different from polonium, which Marie later isolated from <a href="/facts/Uraninite/EsEwMErJ">uraninite</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:216" href="#fn:216"><sup>216</sup></a> In September 1910, Marie Curie and <a href="/facts/Andr%25C3%25A9-Louis_Debierne/RAHKrFs6">André-Louis Debierne</a> announced that they had isolated radium as a pure <a href="/facts/Metal/pqQVs8QU">metal</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:217" href="#fn:217"><sup>217</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:218" href="#fn:218"><sup>218</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>86</td><td><a href="/facts/Radon/0V9arWKl">Radon</a></td><td>1899</td><td><a href="/facts/Ernest_Rutherford/hjjMEskl">E. Rutherford</a> and <a href="/facts/Robert_B._Owens/QlULYnVA">R. B. Owens</a></td><td>1910</td><td>W. Ramsay and <a href="/facts/Robert_Whytlaw-Gray/Knto5LwM">R. Whytlaw-Gray</a></td><td>Rutherford and Owens discovered a radioactive gas resulting from the radioactive decay of thorium, isolated later by Ramsay and Gray. In 1900, <a href="/facts/Friedrich_Ernst_Dorn/VDlnr6cI">Friedrich Ernst Dorn</a> discovered a longer-lived isotope of the same gas from the radioactive decay of radium. Since "radon" was first used to specifically designate Dorn's isotope before it became the name for the element, he is often mistakenly given credit for the latter instead of the former.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:219" href="#fn:219"><sup>219</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:220" href="#fn:220"><sup>220</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>89</td><td><a href="/facts/Actinium/GMQtJ4Gm">Actinium</a></td><td>1902</td><td><a href="/facts/Friedrich_Oskar_Giesel/o2NHuTMw">F. O. Giesel</a></td><td>1955</td><td>Joseph G. Stites, Murrell L. Salutsky, Bob D. Stone</td><td>Giesel obtained from pitchblende a substance that had properties similar to those of lanthanum and named it <i>emanium</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:221" href="#fn:221"><sup>221</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Andr%25C3%25A9-Louis_Debierne/RAHKrFs6">André-Louis Debierne</a> had previously (in 1899 and 1900) reported the discovery of a new element <i>actinium</i> that was supposedly similar to titanium and thorium, which cannot have included much actual element 89. But by 1904, when Giesel and Debierne met, both had samples containing element 89, and so Debierne has generally been given credit for the discovery.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:222" href="#fn:222"><sup>222</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>71</td><td><a href="/facts/Lutetium/URlmnYG8">Lutetium</a></td><td>1906</td><td><a href="/facts/Carl_Auer_von_Welsbach/b1654JpC">C. A. von Welsbach</a> and <a href="/facts/Georges_Urbain/pYchaA3w">G. Urbain</a></td><td>1937</td><td><a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Klemm/zlxSUj2e">W. Klemm</a> and H. Bommer</td><td>von Welsbach proved that the old <a href="/facts/Ytterbium/3lerM9uf">ytterbium</a> also contained a new element, which he named <i>cassiopeium</i> (he renamed the larger part of the old ytterbium to <i>aldebaranium</i>). Urbain also proved this at about the same time (von Welsbach's paper was published first, but Urbain sent his to the editor first), naming the new element <i>lutetium</i> and the old one <i>neoytterbium</i> (which later reverted to ytterbium). However, Urbain's samples were very impure and only contained trace quantities of the new element. Despite this, his chosen name <i>lutetium</i> was adopted by the International Committee of Atomic Weights, whose membership included Urbain. The German Atomic Weights Commission adopted <i>cassiopeium</i> for the next forty years. Finally in 1949 IUPAC decided in favour of the name <i>lutetium</i> as it was more often used.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:223" href="#fn:223"><sup>223</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:224" href="#fn:224"><sup>224</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>75</td><td><a href="/facts/Rhenium/TzyqJYEn">Rhenium</a></td><td>1908</td><td><a href="/facts/Masataka_Ogawa/Xhe9Cg6g">M. Ogawa</a></td><td>1908</td><td>M. Ogawa</td><td><a href="/facts/Masataka_Ogawa/Xhe9Cg6g">Masataka Ogawa</a> found it in <a href="/facts/Thorianite/Xy7LefW9">thorianite</a> in 1908, but assigned it as element 43 and named it <i>nipponium</i>. (Elements 43 and 75 are in the same group of the periodic table.)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:225" href="#fn:225"><sup>225</sup></a> Because of the erroneous assignment, and because some of his key results were published only in Japanese, his claim was not widely recognised. However, the optical emission spectrum described by Ogawa and the X-ray photographic plate for one of his samples match element 75, and his claim has thus been rehabilitated in much of the modern literature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:226" href="#fn:226"><sup>226</sup></a> In 1925 <a href="/facts/Walter_Noddack/a75NHsrF">Walter Noddack</a>, <a href="/facts/Ida_Noddack/4Uve513s">Ida Eva Tacke</a> and <a href="/facts/Otto_Berg_(scientist)/XzGplhSn">Otto Berg</a> announced its separation from <a href="/facts/Gadolinite/kahQI57c">gadolinite</a>, identified it correctly as element 75, and gave it the present name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:227" href="#fn:227"><sup>227</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:228" href="#fn:228"><sup>228</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>91</td><td><a href="/facts/Protactinium/v87VqTPf">Protactinium</a></td><td>1913</td><td><a href="/facts/Oswald_Helmuth_G%25C3%25B6hring/pwCsTmfH">O. H. Göhring</a> and <a href="/facts/Kasimir_Fajans/ubkxreh4">K. Fajans</a></td><td>1934</td><td><a href="/facts/Aristid_von_Grosse/Ed81bS6j">A. von Grosse</a></td><td>The two obtained the first isotope of this element, 234mPa, that had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871, as a member of the natural decay of 238U: they named it brevium. A longer-lived isotope 231Pa was found in 1918 by <a href="/facts/Otto_Hahn/7alx1Db7">Otto Hahn</a> and <a href="/facts/Lise_Meitner/BH51ypJ2">Lise Meitner</a>, and was named by them protactinium: since it is longer-lived, it gave the element its name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:229" href="#fn:229"><sup>229</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:230" href="#fn:230"><sup>230</sup></a> William Crookes in 1900 reported his discovery of the radioelement "uranium X", that later was proven to be mixture of uranium X1 (234Th) and uranium X2 (234mPa).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:231" href="#fn:231"><sup>231</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>72</td><td><a href="/facts/Hafnium/rBNnlxDS">Hafnium</a></td><td>1922</td><td><a href="/facts/Dirk_Coster/Ir1ISpxb">D. Coster</a> and <a href="/facts/Georg_von_Hevesy/UIENAaSm">G. von Hevesy</a></td><td>1924</td><td><a href="/facts/Anton_Eduard_van_Arkel/gRF4Tz4U">Anton Eduard van Arkel</a> and <a href="/facts/Jan_Hendrik_de_Boer/HzBGkwcT">Jan Hendrik de Boer</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Georges_Urbain/pYchaA3w">Georges Urbain</a> claimed to have found the element in rare-earth residues, while <a href="/facts/Vladimir_Vernadsky/uu84bBgI">Vladimir Vernadsky</a> independently found it in <a href="/facts/Orthite/s82K0jvE">orthite</a>. Neither claim was confirmed due to <a href="/facts/World_War_I/vITTUanQ">World War I</a>, and neither could be confirmed later, as the chemistry they reported does not match that now known for hafnium. After the war, Coster and Hevesy found it by X-ray spectroscopic analysis in Norwegian zircon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:232" href="#fn:232"><sup>232</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Anton_Eduard_van_Arkel/gRF4Tz4U">Anton Eduard van Arkel</a> and <a href="/facts/Jan_Hendrik_de_Boer/HzBGkwcT">Jan Hendrik de Boer</a> were the first to prepare metallic hafnium by passing hafnium tetraiodide vapor over a heated <a href="/facts/Tungsten/WYwbNDYX">tungsten</a> filament in 1924.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:233" href="#fn:233"><sup>233</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:234" href="#fn:234"><sup>234</sup></a> Hafnium was the last stable element to be discovered (noting however the difficulties regarding the discovery of rhenium).</td></tr><tr><td>43</td><td><a href="/facts/Technetium/MGYWNI5d">Technetium</a></td><td>1937</td><td><a href="/facts/Carlo_Perrier/URTYgFmW">C. Perrier</a> and <a href="/facts/Emilio_Segr%25C3%25A8/yqe8NKp3">E. Segrè</a></td><td>1947</td><td>S. Fried<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:235" href="#fn:235"><sup>235</sup></a></td><td>The two discovered a new element in a molybdenum sample that was used in a <a href="/facts/Cyclotron/Q8APwhWm">cyclotron</a>, the first element to be discovered by synthesis. It had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as eka-manganese.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:236" href="#fn:236"><sup>236</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:237" href="#fn:237"><sup>237</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:238" href="#fn:238"><sup>238</sup></a> In 1952, <a href="/facts/Paul_W._Merrill/GuN3V57D">Paul W. Merrill</a> found its spectral lines in <a href="/facts/S-type_star/nTzSvMbH">S-type</a> <a href="/facts/Red_giant/lla6Bsvy">red giants</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:239" href="#fn:239"><sup>239</sup></a> Minuscule trace quantities were finally found on Earth in 1962 by B. T. Kenna and <a href="/facts/Paul_Kuroda/esNyAQX2">Paul K. Kuroda</a>: they isolated it from Belgian Congo <a href="/facts/Pitchblende/EsEwMErJ">pitchblende</a>, where it occurs as a <a href="/facts/Spontaneous_fission/0QuJoVKI">spontaneous fission</a> product of uranium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:240" href="#fn:240"><sup>240</sup></a> The Noddacks (rediscoverers of rhenium) claimed to have discovered element 43 in 1925 as well and named it <i>masurium</i> (after <a href="/facts/Masuria/jhPsITl1">Masuria</a>), but their claims were disproven by Kuroda, who calculated that there cannot have been enough technetium in their samples to have enabled a true detection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:241" href="#fn:241"><sup>241</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>87</td><td><a href="/facts/Francium/P3Rz4gDP">Francium</a></td><td>1939</td><td><a href="/facts/Marguerite_Perey/FY8bIRuk">M. Perey</a></td><td></td><td></td><td>Perey discovered it as a decay product of 227Ac.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:242" href="#fn:242"><sup>242</sup></a> Francium was the last element to be discovered in nature, rather than synthesized in the lab, although four of the "synthetic" elements that were discovered later (plutonium, neptunium, astatine, and promethium) were eventually found in trace amounts in nature as well.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:243" href="#fn:243"><sup>243</sup></a> Before Perey, it is likely that <a href="/facts/Stefan_Meyer_(physicist)/I7t9MjBG">Stefan Meyer</a>, Viktor F. Hess, and <a href="/facts/Friedrich_Paneth/fsgC4WC8">Friedrich Paneth</a> had observed the decay of 227Ac to 223Fr in Vienna in 1914, but they could not follow up and secure their work because of the outbreak of <a href="/facts/World_War_I/vITTUanQ">World War I</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:244" href="#fn:244"><sup>244</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>93</td><td><a href="/facts/Neptunium/pwp7Yvds">Neptunium</a></td><td>1940</td><td><a href="/facts/Edwin_McMillan/XQWS1IkY">E.M. McMillan</a> and <a href="/facts/Philip_H._Abelson/vwN9SaGK">H. Abelson</a></td><td>1945</td><td>S. Fried</td><td>Obtained by irradiating uranium with neutrons, it was the first <a href="/facts/Transuranium_element/a12PwdAw">transuranium element</a> discovered.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:245" href="#fn:245"><sup>245</sup></a> Shortly before that, <a href="/facts/Yoshio_Nishina/SsFIQfRg">Yoshio Nishina</a> and Kenjiro Kimura discovered the uranium isotope 237U and found that it beta decays into 23793, but were unable to measure the activity of the element 93 product because its half-life was too long. McMillan and Abelson succeeded because they used 239U, as 23993 has a much shorter half-life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:246" href="#fn:246"><sup>246</sup></a> McMillan and Abelson found that 23993 itself undergoes beta decay and must produce an isotope of element 94, but the quantities they used were not enough to isolate and identify element 94 along with 93.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:247" href="#fn:247"><sup>247</sup></a> Natural traces were found in Belgian Congo pitchblende by D. F. Peppard et al. in 1952.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:248" href="#fn:248"><sup>248</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>85</td><td><a href="/facts/Astatine/AlbHPBK5">Astatine</a></td><td>1940</td><td><a href="/facts/Dale_R._Corson/Klyuh7zN">D. R. Corson</a>, <a href="/facts/Kenneth_Ross_MacKenzie/CDWHa2Qs">K. R. MacKenzie</a> and <a href="/facts/Emilio_Segr%25C3%25A8/yqe8NKp3">E. Segrè</a></td><td></td><td></td><td>Obtained by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:249" href="#fn:249"><sup>249</sup></a> In 1943, <a href="/facts/Berta_Karlik/CcIqChI0">Berta Karlik</a> and Traude Bernert found it in nature; due to <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">World War II</a>, they were initially unaware of Corson et al.'s results.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:250" href="#fn:250"><sup>250</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Horia_Hulubei/XMNRAuDT">Horia Hulubei</a> and <a href="/facts/Yvette_Cauchois/5aE0B0xY">Yvette Cauchois</a> had previously claimed its discovery as a natural radioelement from 1936, naming it <i>dor</i>: they likely did have the isotope 218At, and probably did have enough sensitivity to distinguish its spectral lines. But they could not chemically identify their discovery, and their work was doubted because of an earlier false claim by Hulubei to having discovered element 87.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:251" href="#fn:251"><sup>251</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:252" href="#fn:252"><sup>252</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>94</td><td><a href="/facts/Plutonium/4bUw9zH3">Plutonium</a></td><td>1941</td><td><a href="/facts/Glenn_T._Seaborg/w1a3mume">Glenn T. Seaborg</a>, <a href="/facts/Arthur_Wahl/lEIQqpXC">Arthur C. Wahl</a>, <a href="/facts/Joseph_W._Kennedy/Auj677kl">W. Kennedy</a> and E.M. McMillan</td><td>1943</td><td>H. L. Baumbach, S. Fried, P. L. Kirk and, R. S. Rosenfels<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:253" href="#fn:253"><sup>253</sup></a></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of uranium with deuterons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:254" href="#fn:254"><sup>254</sup></a> Seaborg and Morris L. Perlman then found it as traces in natural Canadian <a href="/facts/Pitchblende/EsEwMErJ">pitchblende</a> in 1941–1942, though this work was kept secret until 1948.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:255" href="#fn:255"><sup>255</sup></a> The first sample of plutonium metal was created from the reduction of <a href="/facts/Plutonium_trifluoride/scFThApB">plutonium trifluoride</a> in November 1943.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:256" href="#fn:256"><sup>256</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>96</td><td><a href="/facts/Curium/LMyWXg8l">Curium</a></td><td>1944</td><td>Glenn T. Seaborg, <a href="/facts/Ralph_A._James/e9SxKjL9">Ralph A. James</a> and <a href="/facts/Albert_Ghiorso/jP5gHCwp">Albert Ghiorso</a></td><td>1950</td><td>J. C. Wallmann, W. W. T. Crane and B. B. Cunningham</td><td>Prepared by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles during the Manhattan Project.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:257" href="#fn:257"><sup>257</sup></a> Curium metal was produced in 1950 by reduction of CmF3 with <a href="/facts/Barium/IkL09XHQ">barium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:258" href="#fn:258"><sup>258</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>95</td><td><a href="/facts/Americium/rxL9Yc64">Americium</a></td><td>1944</td><td>G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James, <a href="/facts/Leon_O._Morgan/s0tydbF9">O. Morgan</a> and A. Ghiorso</td><td>1951</td><td>Edgar F. Westrum Jr. and LeRoy Eyring</td><td>Prepared by irradiating plutonium with neutrons during the <a href="/facts/Manhattan_Project/gtg8yRK2">Manhattan Project</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:259" href="#fn:259"><sup>259</sup></a> Americium metal was produced in 1951 by reduction of AmF3 with <a href="/facts/Barium/IkL09XHQ">barium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:260" href="#fn:260"><sup>260</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>61</td><td><a href="/facts/Promethium/8xvCz9Rg">Promethium</a></td><td>1945</td><td><a href="/facts/Charles_D._Coryell/rTYQL6jd">Charles D. Coryell</a>, <a href="/facts/Jacob_A._Marinsky/eKptQL0U">Jacob A. Marinsky</a>, and <a href="/facts/Lawrence_E._Glendenin/pp0h2sy4">Lawrence E. Glendenin</a></td><td>1963</td><td>F. Weigel</td><td>It was probably first prepared at the Ohio State University in 1942 by bombarding neodymium and praseodymium with neutrons, but separation of the element could not be carried out. Isolation was performed under the Manhattan Project in 1945.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:261" href="#fn:261"><sup>261</sup></a> The metal was later isolated by F. Weigel in 1963, by reducing <a href="/facts/Promethium_fluoride/3mhyfjw6">promethium fluoride</a> with lithium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:262" href="#fn:262"><sup>262</sup></a> Found on Earth in trace quantities by <a href="/facts/Olavi_Er%25C3%25A4mets%25C3%25A4/CJYnt6B1">Olavi Erämetsä</a> in 1965; so far, promethium is the most recent element to have been found on Earth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:263" href="#fn:263"><sup>263</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>97</td><td><a href="/facts/Berkelium/ePryEYy3">Berkelium</a></td><td>1949</td><td><a href="/facts/Stanley_G._Thompson/aBYmwxMd">G. Thompson</a>, A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg (<a href="/facts/University_of_California%2c_Berkeley/MXVEjklr">University of California, Berkeley</a>)</td><td>1969</td><td>J. R. Peterson, J. A. Fahey, and R. D. Baybarz</td><td>Created by bombardment of americium with alpha particles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:264" href="#fn:264"><sup>264</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>98</td><td><a href="/facts/Californium/AJVjoVut">Californium</a></td><td>1950</td><td>S. G. Thompson, <a href="/facts/Kenneth_Street%2c_Jr./EnRWbFMU">K. Street, Jr.</a>, A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg (University of California, Berkeley)</td><td>1974</td><td>R. G. Haire and R. D. Baybarz</td><td>Bombardment of curium with alpha particles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:265" href="#fn:265"><sup>265</sup></a> Californium metal was produced in 1974 by reduction of Cf2O3 with <a href="/facts/Lanthanum/Uhmmy1sB">lanthanum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:266" href="#fn:266"><sup>266</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>99</td><td><a href="/facts/Einsteinium/RePoIVN9">Einsteinium</a></td><td>1952</td><td>A. Ghiorso et al. (<a href="/facts/Argonne_Laboratory/EAoR1Rnm">Argonne Laboratory</a>, <a href="/facts/Los_Alamos_Laboratory/8eL6rj8N">Los Alamos Laboratory</a> and University of California, Berkeley)</td><td>1979</td><td>R. G. Haire and R. D. Baybarz</td><td>Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; kept secret for several years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:267" href="#fn:267"><sup>267</sup></a> Einsteinium metal was produced in 1979 by reduction of Es2O3 with <a href="/facts/Lanthanum/Uhmmy1sB">lanthanum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:268" href="#fn:268"><sup>268</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>100</td><td><a href="/facts/Fermium/Us3rnvG5">Fermium</a></td><td>1953</td><td>A. Ghiorso et al. (Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; first identified in early 1953; kept secret for several years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:269" href="#fn:269"><sup>269</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>101</td><td><a href="/facts/Mendelevium/bEHBu18F">Mendelevium</a></td><td>1955</td><td>A. Ghiorso, G. Harvey, <a href="/facts/Gregory_R._Choppin/qE3skNG3">G. R. Choppin</a>, S. G. Thompson and G. T. Seaborg (<a href="/facts/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory/tvjPSwC9">Berkeley Radiation Laboratory</a>)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of einsteinium with alpha particles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:270" href="#fn:270"><sup>270</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>103</td><td><a href="/facts/Lawrencium/HVw2LVlx">Lawrencium</a></td><td>1961</td><td>A. Ghiorso, <a href="/facts/Torbj%25C3%25B8rn_Sikkeland/QgNrHRp6">T. Sikkeland</a>, E. Larsh and M. Latimer (<a href="/facts/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory/tvjPSwC9">Berkeley Radiation Laboratory</a>)</td><td></td><td></td><td>First prepared by bombardment of californium with boron atoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:271" href="#fn:271"><sup>271</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>102</td><td><a href="/facts/Nobelium/syRkloSw">Nobelium</a></td><td>1965</td><td>E. D. Donets, V. A. Shchegolev and V. A. Ermakov (<a href="/facts/Joint_Institute_for_Nuclear_Research/JrSF8sQQ">JINR</a> in <a href="/facts/Dubna/mn37rc4l">Dubna</a>)</td><td></td><td></td><td>First prepared by bombardment of uranium with neon atoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:272" href="#fn:272"><sup>272</sup></a> Although earlier claims exist, the first complete and incontrovertible report of its detection only came in 1966 from JINR in Dubna, on the basis of experiments done in 1965.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:273" href="#fn:273"><sup>273</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>104</td><td><a href="/facts/Rutherfordium/44LSnv9p">Rutherfordium</a></td><td>1969</td><td>A. Ghiorso et al. (<a href="/facts/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory/tvjPSwC9">Berkeley Radiation Laboratory</a>) and I. Zvara et al. (JINR in Dubna)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of californium with carbon atoms by Albert Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of plutonium with neon atoms by Zvara's team.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:274" href="#fn:274"><sup>274</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>105</td><td><a href="/facts/Dubnium/3CHC1lEt">Dubnium</a></td><td>1970</td><td>A. Ghiorso et al. (<a href="/facts/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory/tvjPSwC9">Berkeley Radiation Laboratory</a>) and V. A. Druin et al. (JINR in Dubna)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of californium with nitrogen atoms by Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of americium with neon atoms by Druin's team.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:275" href="#fn:275"><sup>275</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>106</td><td><a href="/facts/Seaborgium/ejs0Ap6P">Seaborgium</a></td><td>1974</td><td>A. Ghiorso et al. (<a href="/facts/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory/tvjPSwC9">Berkeley Radiation Laboratory</a>)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of californium with oxygen atoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:276" href="#fn:276"><sup>276</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>107</td><td><a href="/facts/Bohrium/epvp3GWM">Bohrium</a></td><td>1981</td><td><a href="/facts/Gottfried_M%25C3%25BCnzenberg/V1IgAxhM">G.Münzenberg</a> et al. (<a href="/facts/GSI_Helmholtz_Centre_for_Heavy_Ion_Research/KeCJHKP0">GSI in Darmstadt</a>)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Obtained by bombarding bismuth with chromium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:277" href="#fn:277"><sup>277</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>109</td><td><a href="/facts/Meitnerium/pKaD3sRY">Meitnerium</a></td><td>1982</td><td>G. Münzenberg, <a href="/facts/Peter_Armbruster/0JylVokh">P. Armbruster</a> et al. (GSI in Darmstadt)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with iron atoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:278" href="#fn:278"><sup>278</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>108</td><td><a href="/facts/Hassium/t0bgGzwt">Hassium</a></td><td>1984</td><td>G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster et al. (GSI in Darmstadt)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of lead with iron atoms<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:279" href="#fn:279"><sup>279</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>110</td><td><a href="/facts/Darmstadtium/etmwTLmP">Darmstadtium</a></td><td>1994</td><td><a href="/facts/Sigurd_Hofmann/4I8kKq2x">S. Hofmann</a> et al. (GSI in Darmstadt)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of lead with nickel<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:280" href="#fn:280"><sup>280</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>111</td><td><a href="/facts/Roentgenium/LEhvJaJQ">Roentgenium</a></td><td>1994</td><td>S. Hofmann et al. (GSI in Darmstadt)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with nickel<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:281" href="#fn:281"><sup>281</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>112</td><td><a href="/facts/Copernicium/EhgyBkg0">Copernicium</a></td><td>1996</td><td>S. Hofmann et al. (GSI in Darmstadt)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of lead with zinc.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:282" href="#fn:282"><sup>282</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:283" href="#fn:283"><sup>283</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>114</td><td><a href="/facts/Flerovium/Aa7uGMuG">Flerovium</a></td><td>1999</td><td><a href="/facts/Yuri_Oganessian/69TJ9VyW">Y. Oganessian</a> et al. (JINR in Dubna)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of plutonium with calcium. It may have already been found at Dubna in 1998, but that result has not been confirmed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:284" href="#fn:284"><sup>284</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>116</td><td><a href="/facts/Livermorium/nQc1FE6E">Livermorium</a></td><td>2000</td><td>Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of curium with calcium<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:285" href="#fn:285"><sup>285</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>118</td><td><a href="/facts/Oganesson/zs5MQDjV">Oganesson</a></td><td>2002</td><td>Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of californium with calcium<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:286" href="#fn:286"><sup>286</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>115</td><td><a href="/facts/Moscovium/QhSEr0H5">Moscovium</a></td><td>2003</td><td>Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of americium with calcium[221]</td></tr><tr><td>113</td><td><a href="/facts/Nihonium/sb09p5dv">Nihonium</a></td><td>2003–2004</td><td>Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna) and K. Morita et al. (<a href="/facts/RIKEN/dbVUF6zN">RIKEN</a> in Wako, Japan)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by decay of moscovium by Oganessian's team[221] and bombardment of bismuth with zinc by Morita's team.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:287" href="#fn:287"><sup>287</sup></a> Both teams began their experiments in 2003; Oganessian's team detected its first atom in 2003, but Morita's only in 2004. However, both teams published in 2004.</td></tr><tr><td>117</td><td><a href="/facts/Tennessine/eGCBDvEr">Tennessine</a></td><td>2009</td><td>Y. Oganessian et al. (JINR in Dubna)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Prepared by bombardment of berkelium with calcium<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:288" href="#fn:288"><sup>288</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/History_of_the_periodic_table/54vj6AVe">History of the periodic table</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Periodic_table/umdGIfUb">Periodic table</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Extended_periodic_table/Q3rg3qLA">Extended periodic table</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/The_Mystery_of_Matter/v3283A9x"><i>The Mystery of Matter: Search for the Elements</i> (2014/2015 PBS film)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Transfermium_Wars/ojjMoSY4">Transfermium Wars</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/content/elements.html">History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers</a> Last updated by Boris Pritychenko on 30 March 2004</li> <li><a href="http://www.ausetute.com.au/elemhist.html">History of Elements of the Periodic Table</a></li> <li><a href="http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/aa030303a.htm">Timeline of Element Discoveries</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090208130034/http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/aa030303a.htm">Archived</a> 2009-02-08 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="http://historyscoper.com/chemicalelementscope.html">The Historyscoper</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U9n8AyOsGRM">Discovery of the Elements – The Movie – YouTube</a> (1:18)</li> <li><a href="http://www.makin-metals.com/about/history-of-metals-infographic/">The History Of Metals Timeline</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211220182822/http://www.makin-metals.com/about/history-of-metals-infographic/">Archived</a> 2021-12-20 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>. A timeline showing the discovery of metals and the development of metallurgy.</li> <li>—Eric Scerri, 2007, <i>The periodic table: Its story and its significance,</i> Oxford University Press, New York, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780195305739</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Yannopoulos, J. C. (1991). The Extractive Metallurgy of Gold. Boston, MA: Springer US. pp. ix. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8425-0. ISBN 978-1-4684-8427-4. <a href="978-1-4684-8427-4" target="_blank">978-1-4684-8427-4</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Grande, L.; Augustyn, A.; Weinstein, J. (2009). Gems and Gemstones: Timeless Natural Beauty of the Mineral World. University of Chicago Press. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-226-30511-0. Retrieved 23 February 2025. <a href="978-0-226-30511-0" target="_blank">978-0-226-30511-0</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>McGuirk, Rod (18 June 2012). "Australian rock art among the world's oldest". Christian Science Monitor. AP. 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ISSN 0307-5133. S2CID 192364303. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>"78 Platinum". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=pt" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=pt</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Holmyard, Eric John (1957). Alchemy. Courier Corporation. ISBN 9780486262987. Retrieved 26 January 2018. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="9780486262987" target="_blank">9780486262987</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Sarton, George (1927–1948). Introduction to the History of Science. Vol. I–III. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. OCLC 476555889. vol. I, p. 532: "We find in them [sc. the works attributed to Jabir] [...] preparation of various substances (e. g., basic lead carbonate; arsenic and antimony from their sulphides)." On the dating of the writings attributed to Jabir, see Kraus 1942–1943, vol. I, pp. xvii–lxv. <a href="/wiki/George_Sarton" target="_blank">/wiki/George_Sarton</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198503415. Retrieved 28 February 2018. <a href="9780198503415" target="_blank">9780198503415</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Bismuth - Royal Society of Chemistry <a href="https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/83/bismuth" target="_blank">https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/83/bismuth</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Gordon, Robert B.; Rutledge, John W. (1984). "Bismuth Bronze from Machu Picchu, Peru". Science. 223 (4636): 585–586. Bibcode:1984Sci...223..585G. doi:10.1126/science.223.4636.585. JSTOR 1692247. PMID 17749940. S2CID 206572055. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Agricola, Georgious (1955) [1546]. De Natura Fossilium. New York: Mineralogical Society of America. p. 178. <a href="http://farlang.com/books/agricola-bandy-de-natura-fossilium" target="_blank">http://farlang.com/books/agricola-bandy-de-natura-fossilium</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Nicholson, William (1819). "Bismuth". American edition of the British encyclopedia: Or, Dictionary of Arts and sciences; comprising an accurate and popular view of the present improved state of human knowledge. p. 181. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GL5PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PT181" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=GL5PAAAAMAAJ&pg=PT181</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. II. Elements known to the alchemists". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (1): 11. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9...11W. doi:10.1021/ed009p11. <a href="/wiki/Mary_Elvira_Weeks" target="_blank">/wiki/Mary_Elvira_Weeks</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Giunta, Carmen J. "Glossary of Archaic Chemical Terms". Le Moyne College. See also for other terms for bismuth, including stannum glaciale (glacial tin or ice-tin). <a href="http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/archems.html" target="_blank">http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/archems.html</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Pott, Johann Heinrich (1738). "De Wismutho". Exercitationes Chymicae. Berolini: Apud Johannem Andream Rüdigerum. p. 134.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eQVAAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA134" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=eQVAAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA134</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. II. Elements known to the alchemists". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (1): 11. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9...11W. doi:10.1021/ed009p11. <a href="/wiki/Mary_Elvira_Weeks" target="_blank">/wiki/Mary_Elvira_Weeks</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Hammond, C. R. (2004). The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.). Boca Raton (FL, US): CRC press. pp. 4–1. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9. <a href="978-0-8493-0485-9" target="_blank">978-0-8493-0485-9</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>Geoffroy, C.F. (1753). "Sur Bismuth". Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences ... Avec les Mémoires de Mathématique & de Physique ... Tirez des Registres de Cette Académie: 190. <a href="/wiki/Claude_Fran%C3%A7ois_Geoffroy" target="_blank">/wiki/Claude_Fran%C3%A7ois_Geoffroy</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Marshall, James L. (2002). Discovery of the Elements (PDF) (2nd ed.). Pearson Custom Publishing. ISBN 0-536-67797-2. <a href="0-536-67797-2" target="_blank">0-536-67797-2</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 2—turbulent nineteenth century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25 (2): 215–234. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09451-w. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 2—turbulent nineteenth century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25 (2): 215–234. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09451-w. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>"15 Phosphorus". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=p" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=p</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Boyle, R. (1672). Tracts written by the Honourable Robert Boyle containing New experiments, touching the relation betwixt flame and air, and about explosions, an hydrostatical discourse occasion'd by some objections of Dr. Henry More against some explications of new experiments made by the author of these tracts: To which is annex't, an hydrostatical letter, dilucidating an experiment about a way of weighing water in water, new experiments, of the positive or relative levity of bodies under water, of the air's spring on bodies under water, about the differing pressure of heavy solids and fluids. Printed for Richard Davis. pp. 64–65. <a href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo2/A29057.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext" target="_blank">https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo2/A29057.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>Weeks, Mary Elvira. (1945). Discovery of the elements (5th ed.). Journal of Chemical Education. p. 83. <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015039738292&view=1up&seq=103" target="_blank">https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015039738292&view=1up&seq=103</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:78"><p>Cavendish, H. (1766). "XIX. Three papers, containing experiments on factitious air". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 56: 141–184. doi:10.1098/rstl.1766.0019. ISSN 0261-0523. S2CID 186209704. <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1766.0019" target="_blank">https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1766.0019</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:79"><p>"01 Hydrogen". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=h" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=h</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:80"><p>Andrews, A. C. (1968). "Oxygen". In Clifford A. Hampel (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 272. LCCN 68-29938. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:81"><p>Marggraf, Andreas Siegmund (1761). Chymische Schriften. p. 167. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b-ATAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA167" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=b-ATAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA167</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>du Monceau, H. L. D. (1702–1797). "Sur la Base de Sel Marin". Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences (in French): 65–68. <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3533j/f73.image.r=Memoires%20de%20l%27Academie%20royale%20des%20Sciences.langEN" target="_blank">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3533j/f73.image.r=Memoires%20de%20l%27Academie%20royale%20des%20Sciences.langEN</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>"11 Sodium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=na" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=na</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:84"><p>"19 Potassium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=k" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=k</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:85"><p>"27 Cobalt". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=co" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=co</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:86"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:87"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:88"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:89"><p>Bache, Franklin (1819). A System of Chemistry for the Use of Students of Medicine. Philadelphia: William Fry. p. 135. ISBN 9780608435060. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="9780608435060" target="_blank">9780608435060</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:90"><p>Davy, Humphry (1812). Elements of Chemical Philosophy. London: W. Bulmer and Co. Cleveland-row. ISBN 9780598818836. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="9780598818836" target="_blank">9780598818836</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:91"><p>"14 Silicon". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=si" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=si</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:92"><p>"Silicon". The Environmental Literacy Council. Archived from the original on 8 September 2018. Retrieved 2 December 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180908135234/https://enviroliteracy.org/special-features/its-element-ary/silicon/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20180908135234/https://enviroliteracy.org/special-features/its-element-ary/silicon/</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:93"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:94"><p>Bache, Franklin (1819). A System of Chemistry for the Use of Students of Medicine. Philadelphia: William Fry. p. 135. ISBN 9780608435060. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="9780608435060" target="_blank">9780608435060</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:95"><p>Davy, Humphry (1812). Elements of Chemical Philosophy. London: W. Bulmer and Co. Cleveland-row. ISBN 9780598818836. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="9780598818836" target="_blank">9780598818836</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:96"><p>"13 Aluminium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=al" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=al</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:97"><p>Örsted, H. C. (1825). Oversigt over det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhanlingar og dets Medlemmerz Arbeider, fra 31 Mai 1824 til 31 Mai 1825 [Overview of the Royal Danish Science Society's Proceedings and the Work of its Members, from 31 May 1824 to 31 May 1825] (in Danish). pp. 15–16. <a href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435054254693&view=1up&seq=17" target="_blank">https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435054254693&view=1up&seq=17</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:98"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:99"><p>"28 Nickel". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ni" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ni</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:100"><p>"12 Magnesium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mg" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mg</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:101"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:102"><p>"25 Manganese". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mn" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mn</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:103"><p>Agricola, Georgius; Hoover, Herbert Clark; Hoover, Lou Henry (1912). De Re Metallica. London: The Mining Magazine. <a href="/wiki/Georgius_Agricola" target="_blank">/wiki/Georgius_Agricola</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:104"><p>Waggoner, William H. (1976). "The Naming of Fluorine". Journal of Chemical Education. 53 (1): 27. Bibcode:1976JChEd..53Q..27W. doi:10.1021/ed053p27.1. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:105"><p>"Lavoisier 1789 – 33 elements". Elementymology & Elements Multidict. Retrieved 24 January 2015. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/chemical_symbols.php" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/chemical_symbols.php</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:106"><p>"09 Fluorine". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=f" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=f</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:107"><p>"08 Oxygen". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=o" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=o</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:108"><p>Cook, Gerhard A.; Lauer, Carol M. (1968). "Oxygen". In Clifford A. Hampel (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 499–500. LCCN 68-29938. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch00hamp</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:109"><p>Stasińska, Grażyna (2012). "The discovery of oxygen in the universe" (PDF). ppgfsc.posgrad.ufsc.br. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 April 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2018. <a href="http://ppgfsc.posgrad.ufsc.br/files/2012/09/oxygen-grazyna.pdf" target="_blank">http://ppgfsc.posgrad.ufsc.br/files/2012/09/oxygen-grazyna.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:110"><p>Roza, Greg (2010). The Nitrogen Elements: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 7. ISBN 9781435853355. <a href="9781435853355" target="_blank">9781435853355</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:111"><p>"07 Nitrogen". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=n" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=n</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:112"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:113"><p>"56 Barium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ba" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ba</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:114"><p>"17 Chlorine". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cl" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cl</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:115"><p>Holden, Norman E. (2019). "History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers". osti.gov. Retrieved 3 January 2023. <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419" target="_blank">https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:116"><p>"42 Molybdenum". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mo" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mo</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:117"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:118"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:119"><p>IUPAC. "74 Tungsten". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=w" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=w</a> <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:120"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:121"><p>Holden, Norman E. (2019). "History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers". osti.gov. Retrieved 3 January 2023. <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419" target="_blank">https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419</a> <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:122"><p>"52 Tellurium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=te" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=te</a> <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:123"><p>Holden, Norman E. (2019). "History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers". osti.gov. Retrieved 3 January 2023. <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419" target="_blank">https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419</a> <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:124"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:125"><p>"Lavoisier 1789 – 33 elements". Elementymology & Elements Multidict. Retrieved 24 January 2015. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/chemical_symbols.php" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/chemical_symbols.php</a> <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:126"><p>"05 Boron". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=b" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=b</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:127"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:128"><p>Œuvres de Lavoisier, Paris, 1864, vol. 1, p. 116–120. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HslXAAAAYAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=HslXAAAAYAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:129"><p>"Lavoisier 1789 – 33 elements". Elementymology & Elements Multidict. Retrieved 24 January 2015. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/chemical_symbols.php" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/chemical_symbols.php</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:130"><p>"40 Zirconium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=zr" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=zr</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:131"><p>Lide, David R., ed. (2007–2008). "Zirconium". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Vol. 4. New York: CRC Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8493-0488-0. <a href="978-0-8493-0488-0" target="_blank">978-0-8493-0488-0</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:132"><p>Bache, Franklin (1819). A System of Chemistry for the Use of Students of Medicine. Philadelphia: William Fry. p. 135. ISBN 9780608435060. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="9780608435060" target="_blank">9780608435060</a> <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:133"><p>Davy, Humphry (1812). Elements of Chemical Philosophy. London: W. Bulmer and Co. Cleveland-row. ISBN 9780598818836. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="9780598818836" target="_blank">9780598818836</a> <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:134"><p>M. H. Klaproth (1789). "Chemische Untersuchung des Uranits, einer neuentdeckten metallischen Substanz". Chemische Annalen. 2: 387–403. <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:135"><p>E.-M. Péligot (1842). "Recherches Sur L'Uranium". Annales de chimie et de physique. 5 (5): 5–47. <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k34746s/f4.table" target="_blank">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k34746s/f4.table</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:136"><p>Weeks, Mary Elvira. (1945). Discovery of the elements (5th ed.). Journal of Chemical Education. pp. 302–305. <a href="#fnref:136" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:137"><p>"Популярная библиотека химических элементов. Титан" (in Russian). Retrieved 19 February 2025. <a href="http://n-t.ru/ri/ps/pb022.htm" target="_blank">http://n-t.ru/ri/ps/pb022.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:137" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:138"><p>"Titanium". Los Alamos National Laboratory. 2004. Archived from the original on 30 December 2006. Retrieved 29 December 2006. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061230040713/http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/22.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20061230040713/http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/22.html</a> <a href="#fnref:138" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:139"><p>Barksdale, Jelks (1968). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. Skokie, Illinois: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 732–38 "Titanium". LCCCN 68-29938. <a href="/wiki/Skokie,_Illinois" target="_blank">/wiki/Skokie,_Illinois</a> <a href="#fnref:139" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:140"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:140" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:141"><p>Bache, Franklin (1819). A System of Chemistry for the Use of Students of Medicine. Philadelphia: William Fry. p. 135. ISBN 9780608435060. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="9780608435060" target="_blank">9780608435060</a> <a href="#fnref:141" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:142"><p>Davy, Humphry (1812). Elements of Chemical Philosophy. London: W. Bulmer and Co. Cleveland-row. 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LIX (135): 101–111. doi:10.1002/andp.18431350507. <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rose" target="_blank">/wiki/Heinrich_Rose</a> <a href="#fnref:145" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:146"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 1—from antiquity till the end of 18th century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25: 29–51. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09448-5. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09448-5</a> <a href="#fnref:146" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:147"><p>Vauquelin, Louis Nicolas (1798). "Memoir on a New Metallic Acid which exists in the Red Lead of Sibiria". Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts. 3: 146. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6dgPAAAAQAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=6dgPAAAAQAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:147" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:148"><p>Glenn, William (1896). "Chrome in the Southern Appalachian Region". Transactions of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers. 25: 482. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5gc2AQAAMAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=5gc2AQAAMAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:148" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:149"><p>Bache, Franklin (1819). A System of Chemistry for the Use of Students of Medicine. Philadelphia: William Fry. p. 135. ISBN 9780608435060. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="9780608435060" target="_blank">9780608435060</a> <a href="#fnref:149" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:150"><p>Davy, Humphry (1812). 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Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 December 2022. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221229122727/https://chemistry.unt.edu/sites/default/files/users/owj0001/vanadium%20II.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20221229122727/https://chemistry.unt.edu/sites/default/files/users/owj0001/vanadium%20II.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:152" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:153"><p>"23 Vanadium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=v" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=v</a> <a href="#fnref:153" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:154"><p>Marshall, James L.; Marshall, Virginia R. (2004). "Rediscovery of the Elements: The Second Discovery of Vanadium" (PDF). unt.edu. 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Retrieved 27 August 2019. <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1432055" target="_blank">https://zenodo.org/record/1432055</a> <a href="#fnref:156" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:157"><p>Holden, Norman E. (2019). "History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers". osti.gov. Retrieved 3 January 2023. <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419" target="_blank">https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419</a> <a href="#fnref:157" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:158"><p>"41 Niobium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=nb" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=nb</a> <a href="#fnref:158" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:159"><p>Holden, Norman E. (2019). "History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers". osti.gov. Retrieved 3 January 2023. <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419" target="_blank">https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419</a> <a href="#fnref:159" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:160"><p>Holden, Norman E. (2019). "History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers". osti.gov. Retrieved 3 January 2023. <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419" target="_blank">https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419</a> <a href="#fnref:160" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:161"><p>"73 Tantalum". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ta" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ta</a> <a href="#fnref:161" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:162"><p>"46 Palladium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=pd" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=pd</a> <a href="#fnref:162" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:163"><p>"58 Cerium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ce" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ce</a> <a href="#fnref:163" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:164"><p>"76 Osmium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=os" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=os</a> <a href="#fnref:164" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:165"><p>"77 Iridium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ir" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ir</a> <a href="#fnref:165" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:166"><p>Holden, Norman E. (2019). "History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers". osti.gov. Retrieved 3 January 2023. <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419" target="_blank">https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419</a> <a href="#fnref:166" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:167"><p>"45 Rhodium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=rh" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=rh</a> <a href="#fnref:167" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:168"><p>"53 Iodine". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=i" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=i</a> <a href="#fnref:168" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:169"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 2—turbulent nineteenth century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25 (2): 215–234. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09451-w. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w</a> <a href="#fnref:169" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:170"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 2—turbulent nineteenth century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25 (2): 215–234. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09451-w. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w</a> <a href="#fnref:170" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:171"><p>"03 Lithium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=li" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=li</a> <a href="#fnref:171" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:172"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 2—turbulent nineteenth century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25 (2): 215–234. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09451-w. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w</a> <a href="#fnref:172" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:173"><p>"48 Cadmium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cd" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cd</a> <a href="#fnref:173" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:174"><p>"34 Selenium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=se" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=se</a> <a href="#fnref:174" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:175"><p>"35 Bromine". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=br" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=br</a> <a href="#fnref:175" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:176"><p>Carl Löwig (1827) "Über Brombereitung und eine auffallende Zersetzung des Aethers durch Chlor" (On the preparation of bromine and a striking decomposition of ether by chlorine), Magazine für Pharmacie, vol. 21, pages 31–36. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bO43AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA31" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bO43AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA31</a> <a href="#fnref:176" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:177"><p>"90 Thorium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=th" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=th</a> <a href="#fnref:177" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:178"><p>"57 Lanthanum". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=la" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=la</a> <a href="#fnref:178" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:179"><p>Holden, Norman E. (2019). "History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers". osti.gov. Retrieved 3 January 2023. <a href="https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419" target="_blank">https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1543419</a> <a href="#fnref:179" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:180"><p>"60 Neodymium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=nd" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=nd</a> <a href="#fnref:180" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:181"><p>Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. XVI. The rare earth elements". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (10): 1758. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9.1751W. doi:10.1021/ed009p1751. ISSN 0021-9584. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:181" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:182"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 2—turbulent nineteenth century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25 (2): 215–234. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09451-w. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w</a> <a href="#fnref:182" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:183"><p>Gottfried Osann (1829). "Berichtigung, meine Untersuchung des uralschen Platins betreffend". Poggendorffs Annalen der Physik und Chemie (in German). 15: 158. <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15100n.image.f168.langDE" target="_blank">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k15100n.image.f168.langDE</a> <a href="#fnref:183" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:184"><p>"44 Ruthenium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ru" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ru</a> <a href="#fnref:184" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:185"><p>"55 Caesium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cs" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=cs</a> <a href="#fnref:185" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:186"><p>Caesium Archived 2012-03-09 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.chem.shef.ac.uk/chm131-2001/chb01jms/caesium.html" target="_blank">http://www.chem.shef.ac.uk/chm131-2001/chb01jms/caesium.html</a> <a href="#fnref:186" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:187"><p>"37 Rubidium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=rb" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=rb</a> <a href="#fnref:187" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:188"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 2—turbulent nineteenth century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25 (2): 215–234. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09451-w. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w</a> <a href="#fnref:188" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:189"><p>"81 Thallium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=tl" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=tl</a> <a href="#fnref:189" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:190"><p>"49 Indium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=in" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=in</a> <a href="#fnref:190" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:191"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 2—turbulent nineteenth century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25 (2): 215–234. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09451-w. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w</a> <a href="#fnref:191" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:192"><p>"02 Helium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=he" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=he</a> <a href="#fnref:192" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:193"><p>"31 Gallium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ga" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ga</a> <a href="#fnref:193" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:194"><p>"The New Metal Gallium". Scientific American. 15 June 1878. Retrieved 16 June 2016. <a href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-new-metal-gallium-1878-06-15/" target="_blank">http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-new-metal-gallium-1878-06-15/</a> <a href="#fnref:194" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:195"><p>Miśkowiec, Paweł (2022). "Name game: the naming history of the chemical elements—part 2—turbulent nineteenth century". Foundations of Chemistry. 25 (2): 215–234. doi:10.1007/s10698-022-09451-w. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10698-022-09451-w</a> <a href="#fnref:195" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:196"><p>"70 Ytterbium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=yb" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=yb</a> <a href="#fnref:196" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:197"><p>"67 Holmium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ho" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ho</a> <a href="#fnref:197" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:198"><p>Fontani, Marco; Costa, Mariagrazia; Orna, Mary Virginia (2014). The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side. Oxford University Press. p. 123. ISBN 9780199383344. ...today's inclination to re-evaluate the work of Delafontaine and Soret has led justifiably to their being included as co-discoverers of holmium. <a href="9780199383344" target="_blank">9780199383344</a> <a href="#fnref:198" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:199"><p>Fischer, Werner; Brünger, Karl; Grieneisen, Hans (1937). "Über das metallische Scandium". Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie (in German). 231 (1–2): 54–62. doi:10.1002/zaac.19372310107. <a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_anorganische_und_allgemeine_Chemie" target="_blank">/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_anorganische_und_allgemeine_Chemie</a> <a href="#fnref:199" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:200"><p>"21 Scandium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=sc" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=sc</a> <a href="#fnref:200" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:201"><p>"69 Thulium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=tm" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=tm</a> <a href="#fnref:201" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:202"><p>"62 Samarium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=sm" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=sm</a> <a href="#fnref:202" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:203"><p>"64 Gadolinium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=gd" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=gd</a> <a href="#fnref:203" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:204"><p>"59 Praseodymium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=pr" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=pr</a> <a href="#fnref:204" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:205"><p>"32 Germanium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ge" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ge</a> <a href="#fnref:205" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:206"><p>"66 Dysprosium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Dy" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=Dy</a> <a href="#fnref:206" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:207"><p>"18 Argon". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ar" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ar</a> <a href="#fnref:207" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:208"><p>"63 Europium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=eu" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=eu</a> <a href="#fnref:208" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:209"><p>"Популярная библиотека химических элементов. Европий" (in Russian). Retrieved 18 February 2025. <a href="http://n-t.ru/ri/ps/pb063.htm" target="_blank">http://n-t.ru/ri/ps/pb063.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:209" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:210"><p>"10 Neon". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ne" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=ne</a> <a href="#fnref:210" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:211"><p>"10 Neon". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. 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Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=po" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=po</a> <a href="#fnref:214" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:215"><p>Skwarzec, Bogdan; Boryło, Alicja; Wieczorek, Jarosław; Lanczewska, Klaudia (2023). "Polonium on the 125th anniversary of its discovery: its chemistry, radiotoxicity and application". Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 268–269: 107259. Bibcode:2023JEnvR.26807259S. doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2023.107259. PMID 37523833. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jenvrad.2023.107259" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jenvrad.2023.107259</a> <a href="#fnref:215" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:216"><p>"88 Radium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. 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Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=bh" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=bh</a> <a href="#fnref:277" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:278"><p>"109 Meitnerium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mt" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=mt</a> <a href="#fnref:278" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:279"><p>"108 Hassium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 12 September 2008. <a href="http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=hs" target="_blank">http://elements.vanderkrogt.net/element.php?sym=hs</a> <a href="#fnref:279" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:280"><p>"110 Darmstadtium". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. 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