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Work engagement
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<h2 id="as-a-unique-concept">As a unique concept</h2> <p>Work engagement as measured by the UWES is positively related with, but can nevertheless be differentiated from, similar constructs such as job involvement and organizational commitment,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> in-role and extra-role behavior;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Personal_initiative/VjgShnq3">personal initiative</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Type_A_and_Type_B_personality_theory/rE98nLE2">Type A</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Workaholic/bBfVLYxc">workaholism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> Moreover, engaged workers are characterized by low levels of burnout,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> as well as by low levels of <a href="/facts/Neuroticism/tmhrDpUS">neuroticism</a> and high levels of <a href="/facts/Extraversion_and_introversion/MUQ9pRhe">extraversion</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> Also they enjoy good <a href="/facts/Mental_health/QIszfk6D">mental</a> and <a href="/facts/Health/yzPVrjTs">physical health</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="trait-versus-state">Trait versus state</h2> <p>Generally, work engagement is conceptualized as a relatively stable phenomenon. This can be explained by the presence of specific job and organizational characteristics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> However, engagement is not a fixed state:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> the level of engagement can even fluctuate on a weekly<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> or day-to-day basis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> Increasingly, attention is being paid to these short-term fluctuations by conducting experience sampling studies and diary studies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Christian, Garza, and Slaughter (2011) meta-analyzed over 90 engagement research studies. They found that engagement is distinct from job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job involvement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="measurement">Measurement</h2> <p>The three aspects of work engagement (vigor, dedication and absorption) are assessed by the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> which is currently available in 20 languages and can be used freely for non-commercial purposes. In addition a short form<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> and a student version<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> are available. The reliability and validity of the UWES is documented is various studies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p><p>The Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> is an alternative instrument for the assessment of work engagement. It consists of two dimensions: exhaustion-vigor and cynicism-dedication.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>The recently operationalized construct of <i>drive</i> was proposed as the key differentiating individual difference dimension of work engagement and has shown promising psychometric results.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> Measured on the basis of 13 facets and three aspects (passion, effort, ideation),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> drive is argued to predict future motivation and engagement levels better than measuring these attributes directly at any point in time, in any given context. </p> <h2 id="main-drivers">Main drivers</h2> <p>Research has identified two key sets of variables that drive work engagement: </p> <ul><li>Job resources: Work engagement is found to be positively associated with job resources such as <a href="/facts/Social_support/wxKQtpqe">social support</a> from co-workers and from one's superior, performance feedback, coaching, <a href="/facts/Job_control_(workplace)/bT7Q5TK9">job control</a>, task variety, opportunities for learning and development, and training facilities. These resources are helpful in reducing the impact of job demands on strain, but they are also useful in the achievement of work goals, and they stimulate learning, personal growth and development. One consistent finding is that the motivational potential of job resources is particularly salient in the face of high job demands.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a></li></ul> <i>Example</i>: In a longitudinal study among 2555 Finnish dentists, researchers found that job resources lead to work engagement, which in turn had an influence on the level of personal initiative and consequently on work-unit innovativeness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> <i>Example:</i> In a study that aimed to examine job resources, work engagement and Finnish dairy farmers’ preferences concerning methods to enhance overall well-being while working on farms. The results indicate that the family, working with cattle, healthy farm animals, a reasonable workload, and a sustainable farm economy have the capacity to create positive impacts on well-being among dairy farmers. Well-being on farms is a part of sustainable food production.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> <ul><li>Personal resources: personal resources, such as optimism, <a href="/facts/Self-efficacy/ufFkUcTl">self-efficacy</a> and resilience are functional in controlling the environment and exerting impact on it in a successful way. Furthermore, engaged employees have several personal characteristics that differentiate them from less engaged employees. Five factor model is useful for examining the dispositional source of work engagement. As a higher order factor work engagement was related to big five factors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> Examples are extraversion, conscientiousness and emotional stability. Psychological capital also seems to be related to work engagement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a></li></ul> <i>Example</i>: Xanthopoulou, Bakker, Demerouti, and Schaufeli (2007) studied Dutch technicians' work engagement in relation to three personal resources (<a href="/facts/Self-efficacy/ufFkUcTl">self-efficacy</a>, organizational-based self-esteem, and optimism).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Results indicated that these resources were related to work engagement. <p>For an overall model of work engagement, see Bakker & Demerouti (2008).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Work_motivation/ECxrAq9a">work motivation</a> model includes 5 elements of individual motivators: money, myself, membership of a team, mastery, and mission. The approach is similar to <a href="/facts/Maslow%2527s_hierarchy_of_needs/cme8UcUx">Maslow's hierarchy of needs</a>. </p> <h2 id="performance">Performance</h2> <p>Engagement is related to better <a href="/facts/Job_performance/0pxyPvbX">performance</a>. For instance, engaged contact workers from hotels and restaurants produce better service quality as perceived by their <a href="/facts/Customer/oGqcqmhf">customers</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> the more engaged university students feel the higher their next year's Grade Point Average;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> the higher the level of engagement of <a href="/facts/Flight_attendant/Y5MLFxPL">flight attendants</a>, the better their in- and extra-role performance on the flight;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> and the more engaged restaurant workers, the higher the <a href="/facts/Turnover_(employment)/eKBLh3zY">financial turnover</a> of the shift.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> Other research has shown links between supervisor-ratings of performance and the work engagement of teachers<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> and administrative workers in financial services.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> Salanova, Agut and Peiró (2005) found a positive relationship between organization resources, work engagement and performance among employees, working in Spanish restaurants and hotels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> </p><p>There are several possible reasons why engaged employees show higher performance than non-engaged employees:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>They often experience positive emotions;</li> <li>They experience better health;</li> <li>They create their own job and personal resources;</li> <li>They transfer their engagement to others (cross-over).</li></ul> <h2 id="downside">Downside</h2> <p>There is also a possibility of becoming 'over-engaged'. For example, it can distort the work-life balance when employees take work home.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> Over-engagement may also lead to <a href="/facts/Workaholism/bBfVLYxc">workaholism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Adaptive_performance/x1U9P13q">Adaptive performance</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Employee_engagement/Lvz99YzK">Employee engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Happiness_at_work/2ushGLCD">Happiness at work</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Motivation/uqLMfLKq">Motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Positive_psychology_in_the_workplace/XMDzoqL0">Positive psychology in the workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Work_motivation/ECxrAq9a">Work motivation</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 692-724 <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 11-37 <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Maslach, C., Jackson, S.E., & Leiter, M. (1997). The truth about burnout: How organizations cause personal stress and what to do about it. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Bakker, A.B., Demerouti, E. (2007). Using the Job Demands-Resources model to predict burnout and performance. Human Resource Management, 43, 83-104 <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Schaufeli, W.B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., & Bakker, A.B. (2002). The measurement of Engagement and burnout: A confirmative analytic approach <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Schaufeli, W.B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of Engagement and burnout: A confirmative analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, 71-92 <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Bakker, A.B., & Leiter, M.P. (Eds.) (2010). Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research. New York: Psychology Press <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Hallberg, U., & Schaufeli, W.B. (2006). "Same same" but different: Can work engagement be discriminated from job involvement and organizational commitment? European Journal of Psychology, 11, 119-127 <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Schaufeli, W.B., Taris, T.W., & Bakker, A. (2006). Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde: On the differences between work engagement and workaholism. In: R. Burke (Ed), Work hours and work addiction (pp. 193-252). Edward Elgar: Northampton, UK <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Salanova, M., & Schaufeli, W.B. (2008). A cross-national study of work engagement as a mediator between job resources and proactive behavior: A cross-national study. International Journal of Human Resources Management, 19, 226-231 <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Hallberg, U., Johansson, G. & Schaufeli, W.B. (2007). Type A behaviour and work situation: Associations with burnout and work engagement. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 48, 135-142 <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Journal_of_Psychology" target="_blank">/wiki/Scandinavian_Journal_of_Psychology</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Schaufeli, W.B., Taris, T.W., & Van Rhenen, W. (2008). Workaholism, burnout and engagement: Three of a kind or three different kinds of employee well-being? Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57, 173-203 <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>González-Roma, V., Schaufeli, W.B., Bakker, A., Lloret, S. (2006). Burnout and engagement: Independent factors or opposite poles? Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 68, 165-174 <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Langelaan, S., Bakker, A.B., Van Doornen, L.J.P. & Schaufeli, W.B. (2006). Burnout and work engagement: Do individual differences make a difference? Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 521-532 <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Schaufeli, W.B., Taris, T.W., & Van Rhenen, W. (2008). Workaholism, burnout and engagement: Three of a kind or three different kinds of employee well-being? Applied Psychology: An International Review, 57, 173-203 <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Macey, W.H., & Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 3-30 <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Siegling, Alex B.; Ng-Knight, Terry; Petrides, Konstantinos V. (2018-12-27). "Drive: Measurement of a sleeping giant". Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research. 71: 16–31. doi:10.1037/cpb0000123. ISSN 1939-0149. S2CID 149751746. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327704708" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327704708</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Altunel, Mustafa C.; Kocak, Omer Erdem; Cankir, Bilal (30 April 2015). "The Effect of Job Resources on Work Engagement: A Study on Academicians in Turkey". Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice. 15 (2). doi:10.12738/estp.2015.2.2349. ISSN 2148-7561. <a href="https://jestp.com/index.php/estp/article/view/690" target="_blank">https://jestp.com/index.php/estp/article/view/690</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Bakker, A.B., & Bal, P.M. (in press). Weekly work engagement and performance: A study among starting teachers. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Bakker, A.B., & Xanthopoulou, D. (2009). The crossover of daily work engagement: Test of an actor-partner interdependence model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 1562–1571 <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A.B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W.B. (2009). Work engagement and financial returns: A diary study on the role of job and personal resources. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 82, 183-200. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A.B., Heuven, E., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W.B. (2008). Working in the sky: A diary study on work engagement among flight attendants. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13, 345-356.) <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Sonnentag, S., Dormann, C., & Demerouti, E. (2010). Not all days are created equal: The concept of state work engagement. In A.B. Bakker & M.P. Leiter (Eds.), Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research. New York: Psychology Press <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Christian, Michael S.; Garza, Adela S.; Slaughter, Jerel E. (March 2011). "WORK ENGAGEMENT: A QUANTITATIVE REVIEW AND TEST OF ITS RELATIONS WITH TASK AND CONTEXTUAL PERFORMANCE". Personnel Psychology. 64 (1): 89–136. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01203.x. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01203.x" target="_blank">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01203.x</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Schaufeli, W.B., Salanova, M., González-Romá, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of Engagement and burnout: A confirmative analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, 71-92 <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Schaufeli, W.B., Bakker, A.B. & Salanova, M. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire: A cross-national study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66, 701-716 <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Schaufeli, W.B., Martínez, I., Marques Pinto, A. Salanova, M. & Bakker, A.B. (2002). Burnout and engagement in university students: A cross national study. Journal of Cross- Cultural Psychology, 33, 464-481 <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>For an overview see: Schaufeli, W.B. 2007 pp. 135-177 <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Demerouti, E., & Bakker, A.B. (2008). The Oldenburg Burnout Inventory: A good alternative to measure burnout and engagement. In J. Halbesleben (Ed.), Handbook of stress and burnout in health care (pp. 65-78). New York: Nova Science Publishers. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Demerouti, E., Mostert, K., & Bakker, A. B. (2010). Burnout and work engagement: A thorough investigation of the independency of both constructs. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15(3), 209–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019408 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019408" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019408</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Sinval, J., Queirós, C., Pasian, S. R., & Marôco, J. (2019). Transcultural adaptation of the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI) for Brazil and Portugal. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00338 <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00338" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00338</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Siegling, Alex B.; Ng-Knight, Terry; Petrides, Konstantinos V. (2018-12-27). "Drive: Measurement of a sleeping giant". Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research. 71: 16–31. doi:10.1037/cpb0000123. ISSN 1939-0149. S2CID 149751746. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327704708" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327704708</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Siegling, Alex B. (2018), The Drive Wheel: A 3-branch model of drive, Unpublished, doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.31307.44329, retrieved 2019-02-19 <a href="http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.2.31307.44329" target="_blank">http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.2.31307.44329</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Bakker, A.B. & Demerouti, E. (2008). Towards a model of work engagement. Career Development International, 13, 209-223 <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Hakanen, J.J., Perhoniemia, R., and Toppinen-Tannera (2008). Positive gain spirals at work: From job resources to work engagement, personal initiative and work-unit innovativeness. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73, 1, 78-91 <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Kallioniemi, Marja K.; Kaseva, Janne; Lunner Kolstrup, Christina; Simola, Ahti; Kymäläinen, Hanna-Riitta (2018-07-03). "Job Resources and Work Engagement among Finnish Dairy Farmers". Journal of Agromedicine. 23 (3): 249–261. doi:10.1080/1059924x.2018.1470047. hdl:10138/311256. ISSN 1059-924X. PMID 30047861. S2CID 51719258. <a href="http://jukuri.luke.fi/handle/10024/542276" target="_blank">http://jukuri.luke.fi/handle/10024/542276</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Ongore, O. (2014). "A study of relationship between personality traits and job engagement". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 141: 1315–1319. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.226. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2014.05.226" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sbspro.2014.05.226</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Bakker, A.B., & Leiter, M.P. (Eds.) (2010). Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research. New York: Psychology Press <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A.B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W.B. (2007). The role of personal resources in the job demands-resources model. International Journal of Stress Management, 14, 121-141 <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Bakker, A.B. & Demerouti, E. (2008). Towards a model of work engagement. 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