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Chamic languages
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<h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>Cham has the oldest literary history of any Austronesian language. The <a href="/facts/Dong_Yen_Chau_inscription/hWI8bYWG">Dong Yen Chau inscription</a>, written in <a href="/facts/Old_Cham/jYBpeXYR">Old Cham</a>, dates from the late 4th century AD. </p><p>Extensive borrowing resulting from long-term contact have caused Chamic and the <a href="/facts/Bahnaric_languages/p8YLGFHG">Bahnaric languages</a>, a branch of the <a href="/facts/Austroasiatic_languages/htRcwIvn">Austroasiatic family</a>, to have many vocabulary items in common.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="classification">Classification</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Graham_Thurgood/9vmvrDCH">Graham Thurgood</a> gives the following classification for the Chamic languages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> Individual languages are marked by <i>italics</i>. </p> <ul><li>Chamic <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Acehnese_language/zNFToqgf">Acehnese</a></i></li> <li>Coastal Chamic <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Haroi_language/8gJI9SkX">Haroi</a></i> (<a href="/facts/Vietnamese_language/J3Pbx58C">Vietnamese</a>: <i>H'roi</i>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Cham_language/YI3TaPg2">Cham</a> (<a href="/facts/Vietnamese_language/J3Pbx58C">Vietnamese</a>: <i>Chăm</i>) <ul><li><i>Western Cham</i></li> <li><i>Eastern Cham (Panduranga Cham)</i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Highlands Chamic <ul><li>Rade–Jarai <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Bih_language/V8seWJpW">Bih</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Rade_language/V8seWJpW">Rade</a></i> (<a href="/facts/Vietnamese_language/J3Pbx58C">Vietnamese</a>: <i>Ê-đê</i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Jarai_language/mqm8uWMh">Jarai</a></i> (<a href="/facts/Vietnamese_language/J3Pbx58C">Vietnamese</a>: <i>Gia Rai</i>)</li></ul></li> <li>Chru–Northern <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Chru_language/n7oVcqxF">Chru</a></i> (<a href="/facts/Vietnamese_language/J3Pbx58C">Vietnamese</a>: <i>Chu Ru</i>)</li> <li>Northern Cham <ul><li><a href="/facts/Roglai_language/51dPJVs0">Roglai</a> (<a href="/facts/Vietnamese_language/J3Pbx58C">Vietnamese</a>: <i>Ra Glai</i>) <ul><li><i>Northern Roglai</i></li> <li><i>Southern Roglai</i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Tsat_language/XRrJQAxA">Tsat</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p>The Proto-Chamic numerals from 7 to 9 are shared with those of the <a href="/facts/Malayic_languages/7rWz6m8k">Malayic languages</a>, providing partial evidence for a Malayo-Chamic subgrouping.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Roger_Blench/50QCDcvA">Roger Blench</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> also proposes that there may have been at least one other <a href="/facts/Austroasiatic_languages/htRcwIvn">Austroasiatic</a> branch in coastal Vietnam that is now extinct, based on various Austroasiatic loanwords in modern-day Chamic languages that cannot be clearly traced to existing Austroasiatic branches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="reconstruction">Reconstruction</h2> <p>The Proto-Chamic reconstructed below is from <a href="/facts/Graham_Thurgood/9vmvrDCH">Graham Thurgood</a>'s 1999 publication <i>From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p> <h3>Consonants</h3> <p>The following table of Proto-Chamic presyllabic consonants are from Thurgood.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> There are a total of 13–14 presyllabic consonants depending on whether or not *ɲ is counted. Non-presyllabic consonants include *ʔ, *ɓ, *ɗ, *ŋ, *y, *w. Aspirated consonants are also reconstructable for Proto-Chamic. </p> Proto-Chamic Presyllabic Consonants<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2"></th><th><a href="/facts/Bilabial_consonant/q2H5MUAe">Bilabial</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Alveolar_consonant/B6VkW2EX">Alveolar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Palatal_consonant/KLcKyXE8">Palatal</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Velar_consonant/blWClp79">Velar</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Glottal_consonant/rMdEdLxH">Glottal</a></th></tr><tr><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Plosive_consonant/okC9pztc">Plosive</a></th><th>Voiceless</th><td>p</td><td>t</td><td>c</td><td>k</td><td></td></tr><tr><th>Voiced</th><td>b</td><td>d</td><td>ɟ</td><td>ɡ</td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nasal_stop/m6D3cVhe">Nasal</a></th><td>m</td><td></td><td>ɲ<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Lateral_consonant/Mcyc1or8">Lateral</a></th><td></td><td>l</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Flap_consonant/5SFjKYlX">Tap</a> or <a href="/facts/Trill_consonant/GKS3ga4q">trill</a></th><td></td><td>r</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Fricative_consonant/1FQuuhfX">Fricative</a></th><td></td><td>s</td><td></td><td></td><td>h</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The following consonant clusters are reconstructed for Proto-Chamic:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> *pl-, *bl-, *kl-, *gl-, *pr-, *tr-, *kr-, *br-, *dr-. Initial <i>*n</i> did not exist, it was replaced by <i>*l</i> instead (<i>*nanaq</i> → <i>*lanah</i> "pus").<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p> <h3>Vowels</h3> <p>There are four vowels (*-a, *-i, *-u, and *-e, or alternatively *-ə) and three <a href="/facts/Diphthong/K8tWRvsx">diphthongs</a> (*-ay, *-uy, *-aw).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p> Proto-Chamic Vowels<table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2">Height</th><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Front_vowel/htKQs3AT">Front</a></th><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Central_vowel/IFSaKUe9">Central</a></th><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Back_vowel/gyHoGCH0">Back</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Close_vowel/Ne6tHQHR">Close</a></td><td colspan="2">i /i/</td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2">u /u/</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Mid_vowel/uzjGLRhf">Mid</a></td><td colspan="2">e /e/</td><td colspan="2">([ə /ə/])</td><td colspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Open_vowel/roS0Y7lA">Open</a></td><td colspan="2"></td><td colspan="2">a /a/</td><td colspan="2"></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Morphology</h3> <p>Reconstructed Proto-Chamic morphological components are:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>*tə-: the "inadvertent" prefix</li> <li>*mə-: common verb prefix</li> <li>*pə-: causative prefix</li> <li>*bɛʔ-: negative imperative prefix (borrowed from Austroasiatic languages)</li> <li>*-əm-: nominalizing infix</li> <li>*-ən-: instrumental infix (borrowed from Austroasiatic languages)</li></ul> <h3>Pronouns</h3> <p>Proto-Chamic has the following personal pronouns:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>Singular </p> <ul><li>*<i>kəu</i> – 'I' (familiar)</li> <li>*<i>hulun</i> – 'I' (polite); 'slave'</li> <li>*<i>dahlaʔ</i> – 'I' (polite)</li> <li>*<i>hã</i> – 'you; thou'</li> <li>*<i>ñu</i> – 'he, she; they'</li></ul> <p>Plural </p> <ul><li>*<i>kaməi</i> – 'we' (exclusive)</li> <li>*<i>ta</i> – 'we' (inclusive)</li> <li>*<i>drəi</i> – 'we' (inclusive); reflexive</li> <li>*<i>gəp</i> – other; group (borrowed from Austroasiatic languages)</li></ul> <h3>Proto-Chamic and Chamic lexical correspondences</h3> <p>Proto-Chamic, Mainland Chamic, Acehnese and Malay comparative table: </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Gloss</th><th><a href="/facts/Proto-Chamic/RjFSsSAq">Proto-Chamic</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Cham_language/YI3TaPg2">Western Cham</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Cham_language/YI3TaPg2">Eastern Cham</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Roglai_language/51dPJVs0">Roglai</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Acehnese_language/zNFToqgf">Aceh</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Malay_language/2T6pPtgv">Malay</a></th></tr><tr><td>one</td><td>*<i>sa</i></td><td>/sa ha/</td><td>/tha/</td><td>/sa/</td><td>/sa/</td><td><i>satu</i></td></tr><tr><td>seven</td><td>*<i>tujuh</i></td><td>/taçuh/</td><td>/taçŭh/</td><td>/tijuh/</td><td>/tujoh/</td><td><i>tujuh</i></td></tr><tr><td>fire</td><td>*<i>ʔapuy</i></td><td>/pui/</td><td>/apuy/</td><td>/apui/</td><td>/apui/</td><td><i>api</i></td></tr><tr><td>sky</td><td>*<i>laŋit</i></td><td>/laŋiʔ/</td><td>/laŋiʔ/ <i>Lingik</i></td><td>/laŋĩːʔ/</td><td>/laŋɛt/</td><td><i>langit</i></td></tr><tr><td>rice (husked)</td><td>*<i>braːs</i></td><td>/prah/</td><td>/prah-l/</td><td>/bra/</td><td>/brɯəh/</td><td><i>beras</i></td></tr><tr><td>iron</td><td><i>*bisεy</i></td><td>/pasay/</td><td>/pithăy/</td><td>/pisǝy/</td><td>/bɯsɔə/</td><td><i>besi</i></td></tr><tr><td>sugarcane</td><td>*<i>tabɔw-v</i></td><td>/tapau/</td><td>/tapăw/</td><td>/tubəu/</td><td>/tɯbɛə/</td><td><i>tebu</i></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <ul><li>Sidwell, Paul (2009). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190324073527/https://www.academia.edu/1540105/Classifying_the_Austroasiatic_languages_history_and_state_of_the_art"><i>Classifying the Austroasiatic Languages: History and State of the Art</i></a>. LINCOM Europa. Archived from <a href="https://www.academia.edu/1540105">the original</a> on 2019-03-24. Retrieved 2017-11-02.</li> <li>Thurgood, Graham (1999). <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects"><i>From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords</i></a>. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0824821319. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20006770">20006770</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Thurgood 1999. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Thurgood 1999. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Sidwell 2009. - Sidwell, Paul (2009). Classifying the Austroasiatic Languages: History and State of the Art. LINCOM Europa. Archived from the original on 2019-03-24. Retrieved 2017-11-02. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190324073527/https://www.academia.edu/1540105/Classifying_the_Austroasiatic_languages_history_and_state_of_the_art" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20190324073527/https://www.academia.edu/1540105/Classifying_the_Austroasiatic_languages_history_and_state_of_the_art</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Thurgood 1999, p. 36. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>According to Glottolog 5.1 (2024) it is classified as a separate language. But its classification is still doubtful, some linguists consider it as a Rade dialect. <a href="/wiki/Glottolog" target="_blank">/wiki/Glottolog</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Thurgood 1999, p. 37. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Blench, Roger (2009). "Are There Four Additional Unrecognised Branches of Austroasiatic?". <a href="http://icaal.org/abstract/blench-are.html" target="_blank">http://icaal.org/abstract/blench-are.html</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Blench, Roger (2009). "Are There Four Additional Unrecognised Branches of Austroasiatic?". <a href="http://icaal.org/abstract/blench-are.html" target="_blank">http://icaal.org/abstract/blench-are.html</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Sidwell, Paul (2006). "Dating the Separation of Acehnese and Chamic By Etymological Analysis of the Aceh-Chamic Lexicon" (PDF). Mon-Khmer Studies. 36: 187–206. doi:10.15144/MKSJ-36.187. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-11-08. <a href="http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/sidwell2006dating.pdf" target="_blank">http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/sidwell2006dating.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Thurgood 1999. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Thurgood 1999, p. 68. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Thurgood 1999. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Reflexes of ɲ are rare in modern Chamic languages. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Thurgood 1999, p. 93. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Thurgood 1999, p. 69. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Thurgood 1999. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Thurgood 1999. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Thurgood 1999, pp. 247–248. - Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change: With an Appendix of Chamic Reconstructions and Loanwords. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. i, iii–vii, ix–xiii, xv–xvii, 1–259, 261–275, 277–397, 399–407. ISBN 0824821319. JSTOR 20006770. <a href="https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects" target="_blank">https://www.scribd.com/document/512808378/From-Ancient-Cham-to-Modern-Dialects</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>