Material

<h2 id="historical-elements">Historical elements</h2>
<p>Materials chart the history of humanity. The system of the three prehistoric ages (<a href="/facts/Stone_Age/r1KMneWW">Stone Age</a>, <a href="/facts/Bronze_Age/c09qWcTt">Bronze Age</a>, <a href="/facts/Iron_Age/mpQYShI0">Iron Age</a>) were succeeded by historical ages: steel age in the 19th century, polymer age in the middle of the following century (plastic age) and silicon age in the second half of the 20th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a>
</p>
<h2 id="classification-by-use">Classification by use</h2>
<p>Materials can be broadly categorized in terms of their use, for example:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Building_material/Kk7GB0KY">Building materials</a> are used for construction</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Building_insulation_materials/sHNjw7AU">Building insulation materials</a> are used to retain heat within buildings</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Refractory_materials/LoKrzGkR">Refractory materials</a> are used for high-temperature applications</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Nuclear_materials/K4FIY8KE">Nuclear materials</a> are used for nuclear power and weapons</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Aerospace_materials/fjWheJUk">Aerospace materials</a> are used in aircraft and other aerospace applications</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Biomaterial/uBdFNr8I">Biomaterials</a> are used for applications interacting with living systems</li></ul>
<p><a href="/facts/Material_selection/7QIRSHsI">Material selection</a> is a process to determine which material should be used for a given application.
</p>
<h2 id="classification-by-structure">Classification by structure</h2>
<p>The relevant structure of materials has a different length scale depending on the material. The structure and composition of a material can be determined by <a href="/facts/Microscopy/GpHlElDS">microscopy</a> or <a href="/facts/Spectroscopy/mj71FuNK">spectroscopy</a>.
</p>
<h3>Microstructure</h3>
<p>In <a href="/facts/Engineering/RFVg8H3I">engineering</a>, materials can be categorised according to their microscopic structure:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a>: 15–17 
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Plastic/Kla5QItn">Plastics</a>: a wide range of <a href="/facts/Synthetic_polymers/Hxrpn9cN">synthetic</a> or <a href="/facts/Semisynthesis/nEMoPxhv">semi-synthetic</a> materials that use <a href="/facts/Polymer/eF32E50K">polymers</a> as a main ingredient.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ceramic/9JKudpqX">Ceramics</a>: <a href="/facts/Nonmetallic_material/eJILAHut">non-metal</a>, <a href="/facts/Inorganic_chemistry/ErD6ypnb">inorganic</a> <a href="/facts/Solid/YU0hJq6f">solids</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Glass/hezRsAGf">Glasses</a>: <a href="/facts/Amorphous_solid/YTIzmrR0">amorphous solids</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Crystal/e2R2mk3E">Crystals</a>: a solid material whose constituents (such as <a href="/facts/Atom/69syB8dH">atoms</a>, <a href="/facts/Molecule/N9ljSfFq">molecules</a>, or <a href="/facts/Ion/wrbwhF3z">ions</a>) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a <a href="/facts/Crystal_lattice/7gQKTsXk">crystal lattice</a> that extends in all directions.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Metal/pqQVs8QU">Metals</a>: <a href="/facts/Chemical_element/0jducgWD">pure</a> or <a href="/facts/Alloy/I7w7WQWR">combined</a> <a href="/facts/Chemical_element/0jducgWD">chemical elements</a> with <a href="/facts/Metallic_bonding/Ht958du4">specific chemical bonding behavior</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Alloy/I7w7WQWR">Alloys</a>: a mixture of chemical elements of which at least one is often a metal.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Polymers/eF32E50K">Polymers</a>: materials based on long <a href="/facts/Carbon/ukrgQexo">carbon</a> or <a href="/facts/Silicon/cgWx0hdr">silicon</a> chains</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hybrid_material/j0J2Ujcf">Hybrids</a>: Combinations of multiple materials, for example <a href="/facts/Composite_materials/UBysQldh">composites</a>.</li></ul>
<h3>Larger-scale structure</h3>
<p>A <a href="/facts/Metamaterial/3DeLU6ME">metamaterial</a> is any material engineered to have a property that is not found in naturally occurring materials, usually by combining several materials to form a composite and / or tuning the <a href="/facts/Shape/NbaGtA8f">shape</a>, <a href="/facts/Geometry/wTQf5ffQ">geometry</a>, <a href="/facts/Dimensions/0ktmUyac">size</a>, <a href="/facts/Orientation_(geometry)/Tj24mTJ8">orientation</a> and arrangement to achieve the desired property.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a>
</p><p>In <a href="/facts/Foams/kGrXWWcb">foams</a> and <a href="/facts/Textiles/PJrVeM5S">textiles</a>, the chemical structure is less relevant to immediately observable <a href="/facts/Chemical_property/uMVxKspS">properties</a> than larger-scale material features: the holes in foams, and the weave in textiles.
</p>
<h2 id="classification-by-properties">Classification by properties</h2>
<p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Material_properties/Cg2LVoQe">Material properties</a></p>
<p>Materials can be compared and classified by their large-scale physical properties.
</p>
<h3>Mechanical properties</h3>
<p>Mechanical properties determine how a material responds to applied <a href="/facts/Forces/LNAUWMwK">forces</a>.
</p><p>Examples include:
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Stiffness/xlabLkfT">Stiffness</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Strength_of_materials/CE77cUcB">Strength</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Toughness/1gEIUdBu">Toughness</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hardness/PtGn6E20">Hardness</a></li></ul>
<h3>Thermal properties</h3>
<p>Materials may degrade or undergo changes of properties at different temperatures. Thermal properties also include the material's <a href="/facts/Thermal_conductivity/qWnSG3nQ">thermal conductivity</a> and <a href="/facts/Heat_capacity/I63nzSyp">heat capacity</a>, relating to the transfer and storage of <a href="/facts/Thermal_energy/eVaKAC7K">thermal energy</a> by the material.
</p>
<h3>Other properties</h3>
<p>Materials can be compared and categorized by any quantitative measure of their behavior under various conditions. Notable additional properties include the optical, electrical, and magnetic behavior of materials.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a>: 5–7 
</p>
<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Hyle/frSjpIXH">Hyle</a>, the Greek term, relevant for the <a href="/facts/Matter_(philosophy)/pD8SYlJU">philosophy of matter</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Matter/osyc04UN">Matter</a></li>
<li>Category:Materials</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Look up <i>material</i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1"><p>"Definition of MATERIAL". Merriam-Webster. 2023-08-20. Retrieved 2023-08-29. <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/material" target="_blank">https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/material</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li>
<li id="fn:2"><p>Korotya, Eugeniya. "Time-and-Materials vs Fixed Price: Which to Choose for Your Project?". Medium. Retrieved 27 March 2025. <a href="https://medium.com/@Eugeniya/time-and-materials-vs-fixed-price-which-to-choose-for-your-project-11dc6adc758b" target="_blank">https://medium.com/@Eugeniya/time-and-materials-vs-fixed-price-which-to-choose-for-your-project-11dc6adc758b</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li>
<li id="fn:3"><p>"Materials that shaped history | School of Materials Science and Engineering – UNSW Sydney". UNSW Sites. Retrieved 2023-08-29. <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/science/our-schools/materials/engage-with-us/high-school-students-and-teachers/materials-shaped-history" target="_blank">https://www.unsw.edu.au/science/our-schools/materials/engage-with-us/high-school-students-and-teachers/materials-shaped-history</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li>
<li id="fn:4"><p>Ashby, Michael; Shercliff, Hugh; Cebon, David (2010). Materials engineering, science, processing and design (2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. ISBN 9781856178952. <a href="9781856178952" target="_blank">9781856178952</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li>
<li id="fn:5"><p>Kshetrimayum, R.S. (January 2005). "A brief intro to metamaterials". IEEE Potentials. 23 (5): 44–46. doi:10.1109/MP.2005.1368916. ISSN 0278-6648. S2CID 36925376. <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1368916" target="_blank">https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1368916</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li>
<li id="fn:6"><p>Ashby, Michael; Shercliff, Hugh; Cebon, David (2010). Materials engineering, science, processing and design (2nd ed.). Oxford: Elsevier. ISBN 9781856178952. <a href="9781856178952" target="_blank">9781856178952</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li>
</ol>

Material open-in-new

Material