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RISE project
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<h2 id="location">Location</h2> <p>The RISE expedition took place on the East Pacific Rise <a href="/facts/Spreading_center/wYdgdSW3">spreading center</a> at depths around 2,600 meters (8,500 ft), at 21° north latitude about 200 kilometers (110 nautical miles) south of <a href="/facts/Baja_California/vJY3AFwn">Baja California</a>, and 350 kilometers (190 nautical miles) southwest of <a href="/facts/Mazatl%C3%A1n/MDUIu5BM">Mazatlán, Mexico</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> The study area at 21° N was selected following results from a series of detailed near-bottom geophysical surveys that were designed to map the geologic features associated with a known spreading center.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="experiments">Experiments</h2> <p>The project objective was detecting and mapping the sub-seafloor <a href="/facts/Magma_chamber/1Rr0cPSa">magma chamber</a> that feeds <a href="/facts/Lava/q2an5SVN">lavas</a> and <a href="/facts/Igneous_Intrusion/Wl6xaY1a">igneous intrusions</a> that create the <a href="/facts/Oceanic_crust/0lGjI7jN">oceanic crust</a> and <a href="/facts/Lithosphere/1mqaxASd">lithosphere</a> in the process of <a href="/facts/Seafloor_spreading/2t2oCbTp">seafloor spreading</a>. The approach comprised many <a href="/facts/Geophysics/ywVQ1sAQ">geophysical</a> techniques including <a href="/facts/Seismology/Lony1LYX">seismology</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Geomagnetism/73G36wmx">magnetism</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> crustal electrical properties,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Gravity_of_Earth/IXe9Bh8k">gravity</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> The major experiment effort though, was seafloor observation and sample collection using the deep submergence submersible <i><a href="/facts/DSV_Alvin/IlrCb76E">ALVIN</a></i> on the crest of the EPR at depths of 2600 meters or more.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>RISE was part of the RITA (Rivera-Tamayo expeditions) project, which included submersible investigations (CYAMEX) at 21° N and at the Tamayo Fracture zone at the mouth of the <a href="/facts/Gulf_of_California/6Da8barh">Gulf of California</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> The RITA project used the French submersible <i>CYANA</i> on the CYAMEX expeditions. <i>CYANA</i> dives at 21° N occurred in 1978, one year prior to the RISE expedition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="participants">Participants</h2> <p>American, French, and Mexican biologists, geologists, and geophysicists participated in both the RISE and RITA expeditions. The RISE expedition was directed by scientists at the <a href="/facts/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography/WJX2h16Y">Scripps Institution of Oceanography</a>, part of the <a href="/facts/University_of_California,_San_Diego/srMClpNv">University of California, San Diego</a>. Project leaders were <a href="/facts/Fred_Spiess/hAuUf9ea">Fred Spiess</a> and <a href="/facts/Kenneth_C._Macdonald/emX5WooX">Ken Macdonald</a>. <a href="/facts/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution/qqmQY6PN">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> provided the <i>ALVIN</i> and its support tender the catamaran <i>Lulu.</i> Scripps provided surface survey vessels the <i>Melville</i> and <i>New Horizon.</i> The expedition took place during March to May 1979. The RITA Project was directed by French scientists and was led by Jean Francheteau.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="findings">Findings</h2> <p>The major finding of the RISE project was discovery of very hot <a href="/facts/Hydrothermal_vent/0xPqNUkY">hydrothermal</a> fluids emanating from the sea floor from <a href="/facts/Hydrothermal_vent/0xPqNUkY">vents</a> at separate locations along the crest of the rise.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> These were anticipated by the discovery during the CYAMEX expedition a year earlier of massive <a href="/facts/Sulfide_minerals/f8rxJpCW">sulfide</a> mineral deposits on the sea floor at 21°N, which were presumed to be due to hydrothermal activity, but which was not then observed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> During RISE dives, the hot vents were found and were marked by mineralized chimneys, about a half-meter in diameter and one to a few meters high, composed of sulfide minerals of <a href="/facts/Zinc/80b1qgk3">zinc</a>, <a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">copper</a> and <a href="/facts/Iron/QK1JYy8E">iron</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Emitting from the chimneys were black plumes or jets of fine particles of these minerals, giving rise to the popular name "black smokers".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Temperatures measured of these jets were 380±30 °C.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Several vents of lower temperature emissions were found (<23 °C). These warm vents were similar to those discovered at the Galapagos Spreading Center a few years earlier.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Hot vents and black smokers were not found at the Galapagos. Modeling of gravity data measured on the seafloor suggested that much of the upper ocean crust at 21°N was fractured and filled with warm water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="scientific-impact">Scientific impact</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Seafloor_massive_sulfide_deposits/8uSeTwKw">Massive sulfide deposits</a> have been mined on land in places including <a href="/facts/Cyprus/t9wL6lVK">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/facts/Oman/yNr7BPbm">Oman</a> and Australia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> The discovery of massive sulfide deposits associated with vent fields at spreading centers provided a model for how these deposits formed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> It also spurred commercial efforts to mine these <a href="/facts/Hydrothermal_vent/0xPqNUkY">deep sea deposits found elsewhere</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> </p><p>Marine geologists were puzzled for years by <a href="/facts/Conductive_heat_transfer/5vRktgcS">conductive</a> <a href="/facts/Heat_flow/1IV3WbFL">heat flow</a> data from the seafloor that showed the measured values at spreading centers were too low for theoretical models of seafloor spreading.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Convection_(heat_transfer)/3r5MHqdg">convective</a> crustal heat transfer computed for the first time from the vent plumes was estimated to be many-fold the observed conductive heat flow at a spreading center.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> These observations pointed to the importance of convective heat flow at spreading centers and provided an answer to the low heat flow problem.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p><p>The discovery of biological communities at low temperature warm vents at 21°N, populated by a benthic community the same or similar to that discovered at the Galapagos spreading center,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> established that life forms found at the Galapagos were not unique. Further, the significance of discovering at the Galapagos site and 21°N of a <a href="/facts/Hydrothermal_vent/0xPqNUkY">chemosynthetic ecosystem</a> that was not dependent on sunlight, existed at high pressures, and was based on chemicals emitted via volcanism, provided a model for how life could have originated on Earth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Tanya_Atwater/5NQl5AUF">Tanya Atwater</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Robert_Ballard/EbKTTXTp">Robert Ballard</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Jack_Corliss/deXK4uCz">Jack Corliss</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Rachel_Haymon/nxWkS8Kn">Rachel Haymon</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Miriam_Kastner/Jt1uAG09">Miriam Kastner</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Bruce_P._Luyendyk/N5XCyKWW">Bruce P. Luyendyk</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Endeavor_Hydrothermal_Vents/twgKaUJ2">Endeavor Hydrothermal Vents</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Magic_Mountain_(British_Columbia)/1lvvq0EU">Magic Mountain (vents offshore British Columbia, Canada)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Rivera_Plate/c9K6SaDq">Rivera Plate</a></li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Ballard, R.D.; Grassle, J.F. (1979). "Incredible world of deep sea rifts". <i>National Geographic</i>. 156: 680–705.</li> <li>Ballard, Robert D. (2017-03-21). <i>The eternal darkness : a personal history of deep-sea exploration</i>. Hively, Will (New Princeton Science Library ed.). Princeton, N.J. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780691175621. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/982214518">982214518</a>.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li> <li>Crane, Kathleen. (2003). <a href="https://archive.org/details/sealegstalesofwo00cran"><i>Sea legs : tales of a woman oceanographer</i></a>. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0813340043. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51553643">51553643</a>.</li> <li>Haymon, R.M. (2014), <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780124095489090503">"Hydrothermal Vents at Mid-Ocean Ridges"</a>, <i>Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences</i>, Elsevier, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-409548-9.09050-3">10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.09050-3</a>, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780124095489, retrieved 2019-06-27</li> <li>Macdonald, Ken C.; Luyendyk, Bruce P. (1981). "The Crest of the East Pacific Rise". <i>Scientific American</i>. 244 (5): 100–117. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981SciAm.244e.100M">1981SciAm.244e.100M</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0581-100">10.1038/scientificamerican0581-100</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8733">0036-8733</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24964420">24964420</a>.</li> <li>Van Dover, Cindy. (2000). <i>The ecology of deep-sea hydrothermal vents</i>. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0691057804. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/41548235">41548235</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://www.whoi.edu/feature/history-hydrothermal-vents/discovery/1979-2.html">Discovery narrative by WHOI for black smokers</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Spiess, F. N.; Macdonald, K. C.; Atwater, T.; Ballard, R.; Carranza, A.; Cordoba, D.; Cox, C.; Garcia, V. M. D.; Francheteau, J. (1980-03-28). "East Pacific Rise: Hot Springs and Geophysical Experiments". Science. 207 (4438). and RISE team: 1421–1433. Bibcode:1980Sci...207.1421S. doi:10.1126/science.207.4438.1421. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17779602. S2CID 28363398. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Corliss, John B.; Dymond, Jack; Gordon, Louis I.; Edmond, John M.; von Herzen, Richard P.; Ballard, Robert D.; Green, Kenneth; Williams, David; Bainbridge, Arnold (1979-03-16). "Submarine Thermal Springs on the Galápagos Rift". Science. 203 (4385): 1073–1083. Bibcode:1979Sci...203.1073C. doi:10.1126/science.203.4385.1073. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17776033. S2CID 39869961. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Martin, William; Baross, John; Kelley, Deborah; Russell, Michael J. (2008). "Hydrothermal vents and the origin of life". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 6 (11): 805–814. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1991. ISSN 1740-1526. PMID 18820700. S2CID 1709272. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Spiess, F. N.; Macdonald, K. C.; Atwater, T.; Ballard, R.; Carranza, A.; Cordoba, D.; Cox, C.; Garcia, V. M. D.; Francheteau, J. (1980-03-28). "East Pacific Rise: Hot Springs and Geophysical Experiments". Science. 207 (4438). and RISE team: 1421–1433. Bibcode:1980Sci...207.1421S. doi:10.1126/science.207.4438.1421. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17779602. S2CID 28363398. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Larson, R. L.; Spiess, F. N. (1969-01-03). "East Pacific Rise Crest: A Near-Bottom Geophysical Profile". Science. 163 (3862): 68–71. Bibcode:1969Sci...163...68L. doi:10.1126/science.163.3862.68. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17780175. S2CID 19351123. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Normark, William R. (1976). "Delineation of the main extrusion zone of the East Pacific Rise at lat 21°N". Geology. 4 (11): 681. Bibcode:1976Geo.....4..681N. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1976)4<681:DOTMEZ>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Spiess, F. N.; Macdonald, K. C.; Atwater, T.; Ballard, R.; Carranza, A.; Cordoba, D.; Cox, C.; Garcia, V. M. D.; Francheteau, J. (1980-03-28). "East Pacific Rise: Hot Springs and Geophysical Experiments". Science. 207 (4438). and RISE team: 1421–1433. Bibcode:1980Sci...207.1421S. doi:10.1126/science.207.4438.1421. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17779602. S2CID 28363398. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Macdonald, Ken C.; Miller, Stephen P.; Luyendyk, Bruce P.; Atwater, Tanya M.; Shure, Loren (1983). "Investigation of a Vine-Matthews Magnetic Lineation from a submersible: The source and character of marine magnetic anomalies". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 88 (B4): 3403–3418. Bibcode:1983JGR....88.3403M. doi:10.1029/JB088iB04p03403. ISSN 2156-2202. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Young, Peter D.; Cox, Charles S. (1981). "Electromagnetic active source sounding near the East Pacific Rise". Geophysical Research Letters. 8 (10): 1043–1046. Bibcode:1981GeoRL...8.1043Y. doi:10.1029/GL008i010p01043. ISSN 1944-8007. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Luyendyk, Bruce P. (1984). "On-bottom gravity profile across the East Pacific Rise crest at 21° north". Geophysics. 49 (12): 2166–2177. Bibcode:1984Geop...49.2166L. doi:10.1190/1.1441632. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Spiess, F. N.; Macdonald, K. C.; Atwater, T.; Ballard, R.; Carranza, A.; Cordoba, D.; Cox, C.; Garcia, V. M. D.; Francheteau, J. (1980-03-28). "East Pacific Rise: Hot Springs and Geophysical Experiments". Science. 207 (4438). and RISE team: 1421–1433. Bibcode:1980Sci...207.1421S. doi:10.1126/science.207.4438.1421. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17779602. S2CID 28363398. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Cyamex Scientific Team; Francheteau, J.; Needham, H. D.; Choukroune, P.; Juteau, T.; Seguret, M.; Ballard, R. D.; Fox, P. J.; Normark, W. R. (1981). "First manned submersible dives on the East Pacific Rise at 21°N (project RITA): General results". Marine Geophysical Researches. 4 (4): 345–379. Bibcode:1981MarGR...4..345F. doi:10.1007/BF00286034. ISSN 0025-3235. S2CID 130239388. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Cyamex Scientific Team; Francheteau, J.; Needham, H. D.; Choukroune, P.; Juteau, T.; Seguret, M.; Ballard, R. D.; Fox, P. J.; Normark, W. R. (1981). "First manned submersible dives on the East Pacific Rise at 21°N (project RITA): General results". Marine Geophysical Researches. 4 (4): 345–379. Bibcode:1981MarGR...4..345F. doi:10.1007/BF00286034. ISSN 0025-3235. S2CID 130239388. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Cyamex Scientific Team; Francheteau, J.; Needham, H. D.; Choukroune, P.; Juteau, T.; Seguret, M.; Ballard, R. D.; Fox, P. J.; Normark, W. R. (1981). "First manned submersible dives on the East Pacific Rise at 21°N (project RITA): General results". Marine Geophysical Researches. 4 (4): 345–379. Bibcode:1981MarGR...4..345F. doi:10.1007/BF00286034. ISSN 0025-3235. S2CID 130239388. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Spiess, F. N.; Macdonald, K. C.; Atwater, T.; Ballard, R.; Carranza, A.; Cordoba, D.; Cox, C.; Garcia, V. M. D.; Francheteau, J. (1980-03-28). "East Pacific Rise: Hot Springs and Geophysical Experiments". Science. 207 (4438). and RISE team: 1421–1433. Bibcode:1980Sci...207.1421S. doi:10.1126/science.207.4438.1421. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17779602. S2CID 28363398. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Francheteau, J.; Needham, H. D.; Choukroune, P.; Juteau, T.; Séguret, M.; Ballard, R. D.; Fox, P. J.; Normark, W.; Carranza, A. (1979). "Massive deep-sea sulphide ore deposits discovered on the East Pacific Rise" (PDF). Nature. 277 (5697): 523–528. Bibcode:1979Natur.277..523F. doi:10.1038/277523a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4356666. <a href="https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/1979/publication-5278.pdf" target="_blank">https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/1979/publication-5278.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Hekinian, R.; Fevrier, M.; Bischoff, J. L.; Picot, P.; Shanks, W. C. (1980-03-28). "Sulfide Deposits from the East Pacific Rise Near 21 N". Science. 207 (4438): 1433–1444. doi:10.1126/science.207.4438.1433. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17779603. S2CID 129237949. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Haymon, Rachel M.; Kastner, Miriam (1981). "Hot spring deposits on the East Pacific Rise at 21°N: preliminary description of mineralogy and genesis". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 53 (3): 363–381. Bibcode:1981E&PSL..53..363H. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(81)90041-8. <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Haymon" target="_blank">/wiki/Rachel_Haymon</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Spiess, F. N.; Macdonald, K. C.; Atwater, T.; Ballard, R.; Carranza, A.; Cordoba, D.; Cox, C.; Garcia, V. M. D.; Francheteau, J. (1980-03-28). "East Pacific Rise: Hot Springs and Geophysical Experiments". 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S2CID 28363398. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Corliss, John B.; Dymond, Jack; Gordon, Louis I.; Edmond, John M.; von Herzen, Richard P.; Ballard, Robert D.; Green, Kenneth; Williams, David; Bainbridge, Arnold (1979-03-16). "Submarine Thermal Springs on the Galápagos Rift". Science. 203 (4385): 1073–1083. Bibcode:1979Sci...203.1073C. doi:10.1126/science.203.4385.1073. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17776033. S2CID 39869961. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Luyendyk, Bruce P. (1984). "On-bottom gravity profile across the East Pacific Rise crest at 21° north". Geophysics. 49 (12): 2166–2177. 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