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Schizotypal personality disorder
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<h2 id="signs-and-symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2> <h3>Magical thinking</h3> <p>Odd and <a href="/facts/Magical_thinking/et63wXVt">magical thinking</a> is common among people with StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> They are more likely to believe in <a href="/facts/Supernatural/qSlTK0Ss">supernatural</a> phenomena and entities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> It is common for people with StPD to experience severe <a href="/facts/Social_anxiety/lQ2FBqUf">social anxiety</a> and have <a href="/facts/Paranoia/6SR9jv8y">paranoid ideation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Ideas_and_delusions_of_reference/Ha5ESlhQ">Ideas of reference</a> are common in people with StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> They can feel as if expressing themselves is dangerous. They may also feel that others are more competent, and have deeply entrenched and pervasive insecurities. Strange thinking patterns may be a <a href="/facts/Defence_mechanism/DElFgLaE">defense mechanism</a> against these feelings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> People with StPD usually have limited levels of <a href="/facts/Self-awareness/e3Wh7bFx">self-awareness</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> They may believe others think of them more negatively than they actually do.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <h3>Affect</h3> <p>Patients with StPD can have <a href="/facts/Alexithymia/pSoY649Y">difficulties in recognizing their or others' emotions</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> which can extend to difficulty expressing emotion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> They may have limited responses to others' emotions and can be ambivalent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> It is common for people with StPD to derive <a href="/facts/Anhedonia/SMPHrCon">limited joy from activities</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> People with StPD are typically more socially isolated and uninterested in social situations than people without StPD,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> although they are still likely to be socially active on the Internet.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Depersonalization/7xJIP7YC">Depersonalization</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Derealization/NgduV0Mp">derealization</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Boredom/pe1f6vGT">boredom</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> and internal fantasies are common in patients with StPD. Abnormal facial expressions are also common in people with StPD, and they can have aberrant <a href="/facts/Eye_movement/4a9mNbP5">eye movements</a> and difficulty responding to stimuli.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> They are often more prone to substance abuse or <a href="/facts/Suicidal_ideation/fRd8YNjj">suicidal ideation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> In an epidemiological study on suicidal behavior in StPD, even when sociodemographic factors were accounted for, people with StPD were 1.51 times more likely to attempt suicide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> StPD is also often characterized as having similar symptoms as <a href="/facts/Schizophrenia/FMP4lQ57">schizophrenia</a>, but with less severe cognitive deficits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> </p> <h3>Cognition</h3> <p>People with StPD tend to have <a href="/facts/Cognitive_deficit/VhJVfJ8a">cognitive impairments</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> They can have abnormal perceptional and sensory experiences such as <a href="/facts/Illusion/Wp52FHKV">illusions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> For example, someone with StPD may perceive colors as lighter or darker than others perceive them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Face_perception/shbrk8Ya">Facial perception</a> may also be difficult for people with the disorder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> They can see others as deformed, may misrecognize them, or can feel as if they are alien to them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> People with StPD can have difficulty processing information such as speech or language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> They are more likely to speak slowly, with less fluctuation in <a href="/facts/Pitch_(music)/fQAK0JsC">pitch</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> and long pauses between speech. Patients with StPD may have a lower <a href="/facts/Odor_detection_threshold/8F973zgo">odor detection threshold</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> and can have impaired <a href="/facts/Auditory_system/fJYTKjje">auditory</a> or <a href="/facts/Sense_of_smell/t6ytFklU">olfactory processing</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> It is also common for people with StPD to struggle with <a href="/facts/Context_effect/BrqzPofU">context processing</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> which cause them to form loose connections between events.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> In addition, people with StPD can have decreased capacities for <a href="/facts/Multisensory_integration/lUUaqCqu">multisensory integration</a> or <a href="/facts/Contrast_(vision)/zD9F91Je">contrast sensitivity</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> either hyperreactive or impaired reactions to sensory input,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> slower response times,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> impaired <a href="/facts/Attention/pleJPaeQ">attention</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> poorer <a href="/facts/Posture_(psychology)/kAMeYYPX">postural</a> control,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> and difficulties with decision-making.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> They can have difficulties in <a href="/facts/Memory/a1QSEJhj">memory</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> and may have frequent intrusive memories of events.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> It is common for people with StPD to feel <i><a href="/facts/D%25C3%25A9j%25C3%25A0_vu/5BHpHVCe">déjà vu</a></i> or as if they can accurately predict future events due to abnormalities in the brain's memory storage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>StPD was introduced in 1980 in the <a href="/facts/DSM-III/pJ29wFmm">DSM-III</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> Its inclusion provided a new classification for schizophrenia-spectrum disorders and of personality disorders that were previously unspecified.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> Its diagnosis was developed through differentiating the classifications of <a href="/facts/Borderline_personality_disorder/VFaa63gE">borderline personality disorder</a>, of which some of the diagnosed population demonstrated schizophrenia-spectrum traits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> When the separation of borderline personality disorder and StPD was originally suggested by <a href="/facts/Robert_Spitzer_(psychiatrist)/ayFWLsIs">Spitzer</a> and Endicott, <a href="/facts/Larry_J._Siever/BKxTvTAJ">Siever</a> and <a href="/facts/John_G._Gunderson/n4RnMY6m">Gunderson</a> opposed the distinction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> Siever and Gunderson's opposition to Spitzer and Endicott was that StPD was related to schizophrenia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Robert_Spitzer_(psychiatrist)/ayFWLsIs">Spitzer</a> and Endicott stated "We believe, as do the authors, that the evidence for the genetic relationship between Schizotypal features and Chronic Schizophrenia is suggestive rather than proven".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> StPD was included in the <a href="/facts/DSM-IV/pJ29wFmm">DSM-IV</a> and the <a href="/facts/DSM-5/kwhcSJcg">DSM-5</a> and saw little change in its diagnosis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2> <p>The reported prevalence of StPD in community studies ranges from 1.37% in a <a href="/facts/Norway/wlDRKRTR">Norwegian</a> sample, to 4.6% in an <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">American</a> sample.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> A large American study found a lifetime prevalence of 3.9%, with somewhat higher rates among men (4.2%) than women (3.7%).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> It may be uncommon in clinical populations, with reported rates of up to 1.9%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> It has been estimated to be prevalent among up to 5.2% of the general population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> Together with other <a href="/facts/Cluster_A_personality_disorders/SxFnlSEW">cluster A personality disorders</a>, it is also very common among <a href="/facts/Homelessness/uqVV2c5R">homeless people</a> who show up at drop-in centers, according to a 2008 New York study. The study did not address homeless people who do not show up at drop-in centers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> Schizotypal disorder may be <a href="/facts/Overdiagnosis/d6CspRcq">overdiagnosed</a> in <a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a> and other <a href="/facts/Post-Soviet_states/usrFwWTU">post-Soviet states</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="prognosis">Prognosis</h2> <p>People with StPD usually had symptoms of schizotypal personality disorder in childhood.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> Traits of StPD usually remain consistently present over time,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a> although can fluctuate greatly in severity and stability.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> DSM characterizes StPD as having nine major symptoms: ideas of reference, odd/magical beliefs, social anxiety, not having close friends, odd or eccentric behavior, odd speech, unusual perceptions, suspiciousness, schizo-obsessive behaviors<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Constricted_affect/6zUQyoh1">constricted affect</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> StPD can be diagnosed alongside other disorders, including <a href="/facts/Borderline_personality_disorder/VFaa63gE">borderline personality disorder</a> (BPD), <a href="/facts/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder/uSqjIyhd">attention-deficit disorder</a>, <a href="/facts/Social_anxiety_disorder/25XIzJ0o">social anxiety disorder</a>, and <a href="/facts/Autism/6MTwMNoJ">autism spectrum disorder</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Comorbidity/tX5TvuKJ">Comorbidities</a> such as these can influence and potentially interfere with an individual's diagnosis of StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> There may be <a href="/facts/Sex_differences_in_humans/DtVHPvpe">gender differences</a> in the symptomology of men and women with StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> Women with the disorder might be more likely to have less severe <a href="/facts/Cognitive_deficit/VhJVfJ8a">cognitive deficits</a>, and more severe <a href="/facts/Social_anxiety/lQ2FBqUf">social anxiety</a> and <a href="/facts/Magical_thinking/et63wXVt">magical thinking</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> Symptoms of <a href="/facts/Depression_(mood)/GDNFWm1L">depression</a> in women with StPD have a more negative impact on cognitive functioning than in males diagnosed with StPD and depression.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a> In males with the disorder, abstraction and verbal learning are more likely to be in deficit compared to women, who tend to be less vulnerable to verbal deficits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a> People with StPD are more likely to only have a <a href="/facts/Secondary_school/GjEqd0fa">high school education</a>, to be unemployed,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a> and to have significant <a href="/facts/Disability/vr9BPUxo">functional impairment</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a> The two traits of StPD which are least likely to change are paranoia and abnormal experiences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a> </p><p>StPD tends to develop in adolescence and early adulthood, accompanied by a gradual decline in functioning and the increased development of StPD symptoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a> Adolescents with StPD were more likely to have performance deficits, especially in <a href="/facts/Arithmetic/hvHwkbMV">arithmetic</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a> and to display significantly lower levels of <a href="/facts/Executive_functions/QtflLj55">executive functioning</a>, similar to autism spectrum disorder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a> Compared to those without StPD, adolescents with StPD spend more time socializing on the Internet, such as on forums, chat rooms and cooperative computer games, and spend less time socializing in-person.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a> People who are treatment-resistant to <a href="/facts/Obsessive%25E2%2580%2593compulsive_disorder/bIhDh4dz">obsessive–compulsive disorder</a> (OCD) behavioral therapy and medication that also display odd or eccentric behaviors could contribute to the coexistence of obsessive–compulsive disorder with schizotypal disorder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="etiology">Etiology</h2> <h3>Genetic</h3> <p>Although environmental factors likely play an important role in the onset of the disorder, people who have relatives with <a href="/facts/Schizotypy/FRPUFMuE">schizotypy</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Mood_disorder/Y0Mjq3QR">mood disorders</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127"><sup>127</sup></a> or other disorders on the <a href="/facts/Spectrum_disorder/ltEzWjDE">schizophrenia spectrum</a> are at a higher likelihood of developing StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128"><sup>128</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129"><sup>129</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130"><sup>130</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Rs4680/dzmYewVT">COMT Val158Met</a> <a href="/facts/Polymorphism_(biology)/lf32kgfV">polymorphism</a> and its Val or Met <a href="/facts/Allele/8FxCS9KA">allele</a> are suspected to be associated with Schizotypal personality disorder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131"><sup>131</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132"><sup>132</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133"><sup>133</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134"><sup>134</sup></a> These genes affect <a href="/facts/Dopamine/5gNy8Xkd">dopamine</a> production in the brain,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135"><sup>135</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136"><sup>136</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137"><sup>137</sup></a> a <a href="/facts/Neurochemical/Ncuw0pUr">neurochemical</a> thought to be associated with schizotypal traits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138"><sup>138</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139"><sup>139</sup></a> The gene may also contribute to decreased levels of gray matter in the <a href="/facts/Prefrontal_cortex/dypYIrwx">prefrontal cortex</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140"><sup>140</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141"><sup>141</sup></a> This may lead to impaired capacities for decision-making,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142"><sup>142</sup></a> speech,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143"><sup>143</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Cognitive_flexibility/5MCcwX16">cognitive flexibility</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144"><sup>144</sup></a> and altered perceptual experiences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145"><sup>145</sup></a> The rs1006737 <a href="/facts/Polymorphism_(biology)/lf32kgfV">polymorphism</a> of the <a href="/facts/Cav1.2/MFh7Fx4c">CACNA1C</a> gene is also believed to have a part in schizotypal symptoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146"><sup>146</sup></a> It may lead to a significantly increased <a href="/facts/Physiology/fh25y2pQ">physiological</a> response to <a href="/facts/Stress_(biology)/H29jPp2B">stress</a> through the <a href="/facts/Cortisol_awakening_response/qlryjSc0">cortisol awakening response</a> in the brain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147"><sup>147</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148"><sup>148</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149"><sup>149</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150"><sup>150</sup></a> It may also negatively affect reward processing in the brain and lead to <a href="/facts/Anhedonia/SMPHrCon">anhedonia</a> or <a href="/facts/Depression_(mood)/GDNFWm1L">depression</a> in patients.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151"><sup>151</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152"><sup>152</sup></a> These factors possibly lead to the development of Schizotypal traits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153"><sup>153</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Zinc_finger/dWrlw4t7">zinc-finger protein</a> <a href="/facts/Zinc_finger_protein_804A/6z34Wmoo">ZNF804A</a> likely affects the levels of <a href="/facts/Paranoia/6SR9jv8y">paranoia</a>, <a href="/facts/Anxiety/Geekl883">anxiety</a>, and <a href="/facts/Ideas_and_delusions_of_reference/Ha5ESlhQ">ideas of reference</a> in StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154"><sup>154</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155"><sup>155</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156"><sup>156</sup></a> This gene is also thought to negatively impact <a href="/facts/Attention/pleJPaeQ">attention</a> in people with StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157"><sup>157</sup></a> It may lead to an increased level of <a href="/facts/White_matter/mvHqXJYk">white matter</a> volume in the frontal lobe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158"><sup>158</sup></a> Another gene, the <a href="/facts/Notch_4/zScuoIhR">NOTCH4</a> is thought to relate to Schizophrenia spectrum disorders.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159"><sup>159</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160"><sup>160</sup></a> It can lead to disruptions in the <a href="/facts/Occipital_lobe/t9Rcj7QB">occipital cortex</a>, and therefore symptoms of schizotypy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161"><sup>161</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Glycine_receptor%2c_alpha_1/6sRXfxCK">GLRA1</a> and the <a href="/facts/RICS_(gene)/uwcuDWnK">p250GAP</a> genes are also potentially associated with StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162"><sup>162</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163"><sup>163</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164"><sup>164</sup></a> It may lead to abnormally low levels of <a href="/facts/Glutamic_acid/7oXbNcvu">Glutamic acids</a> in the <a href="/facts/NMDA_receptor/BqMhXEbU">NMDA receptors</a>, which impairs memory and learning.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165"><sup>165</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166"><sup>166</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167"><sup>167</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168"><sup>168</sup></a> StPD may stem from abnormalities in <a href="/facts/Chromosome_22/s2e5G3LQ">Chromosome 22</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169"><sup>169</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170"><sup>170</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171"><sup>171</sup></a> </p> <h3>Neurological</h3> <p>Exposure to influenza during week 23 of <a href="/facts/Gestation/QKgkykw5">gestation</a> is associated with a higher likelihood of developing StPD. Poor <a href="/facts/Nutrition/SMJ3Dhfs">nutrition</a> in childhood may also contribute to the onset of StPD by altering the course of brain development.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172"><sup>172</sup></a> Numerous areas of the brain are thought to be associated with StPD. Higher levels of dopamine in the brain,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173"><sup>173</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174"><sup>174</sup></a> possibly specifically the <a href="/facts/Dopamine_receptor_D1/fkWRTblS">D1 receptor</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175"><sup>175</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176"><sup>176</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177"><sup>177</sup></a> might contribute to the development of StPD. StPD is associated with heightened dopaminergic activity in the <a href="/facts/Striatum/MjNnTjSd">striatum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178"><sup>178</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179"><sup>179</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180"><sup>180</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181"><sup>181</sup></a> Their symptoms may also stem from higher <a href="/facts/Synapse/vdMRJCUn">presynaptic</a> dopamine release.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182"><sup>182</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183"><sup>183</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184"><sup>184</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185"><sup>185</sup></a> People with StPD may also have decreased volumes of <a href="/facts/Grey_matter/Jtoy609e">grey</a> or <a href="/facts/White_matter/mvHqXJYk">white matter</a> in their <a href="/facts/Caudate_nucleus/tAkRY4c0">caudate nucleus</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186"><sup>186</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187"><sup>187</sup></a> which leads to difficulties in speech.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188"><sup>188</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189"><sup>189</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190"><sup>190</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191"><sup>191</sup></a> People with StPD likely have a reduced volume in their temporal lobes,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192"><sup>192</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193"><sup>193</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194"><sup>194</sup></a> possibly specifically the left hemisphere. The reduced levels of <a href="/facts/Grey_matter/Jtoy609e">gray matter</a> in these areas may be linked to their negative symptoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195"><sup>195</sup></a> Reduced volume of gray or <a href="/facts/White_matter/mvHqXJYk">white matter</a> in the <a href="/facts/Superior_temporal_gyrus/xsrJ4nkH">superior temporal gyrus</a> or the <a href="/facts/Transverse_temporal_gyrus/JdHKLuXw">transverse temporal gyrus</a> are thought to lead to issues with speech,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196"><sup>196</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197"><sup>197</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198"><sup>198</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199"><sup>199</sup></a> memory, and <a href="/facts/Hallucination/5eUvLcnp">hallucinations</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200"><sup>200</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201"><sup>201</sup></a> Deficits in the gray matter volume of the temporal lobe and <a href="/facts/Prefrontal_cortex/dypYIrwx">prefrontal cortex</a> are likely associated with impairments in <a href="/facts/Cognitive_skill/8L95q3bX">cognitive function</a>, <a href="/facts/Sensory_processing/VIsgQleL">sensory processing</a>, <a href="/facts/Speech/WEelhfTs">speech</a>, <a href="/facts/Executive_functions/QtflLj55">executive function</a>, <a href="/facts/Decision-making/NbJYprSw">decision-making</a>, and <a href="/facts/Emotion/kvAr22wa">emotional processing</a> present in people with StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202"><sup>202</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203"><sup>203</sup></a> StPD symptoms may also be influenced by reduced <a href="/facts/Internal_capsule/vceryHK0">internal capsule</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204"><sup>204</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:205" href="#fn:205"><sup>205</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:206" href="#fn:206"><sup>206</sup></a> which carries information to the <a href="/facts/Cerebral_cortex/GpXosGHP">cerebral cortex</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:207" href="#fn:207"><sup>207</sup></a> People with StPD can also have impairments in the <a href="/facts/Uncinate_fasciculus/hsJfTQon">uncinate fasciculus</a>, which connects parts of the <a href="/facts/Limbic_system/TelEk6Jl">limbic system</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:208" href="#fn:208"><sup>208</sup></a> People with StPD have reduced levels of gray matter in their <a href="/facts/Middle_frontal_gyrus/tqMt8T6P">middle frontal gyrus</a> and <a href="/facts/Brodmann_area_10/8Y8GBMVG">Brodmann area 10</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:209" href="#fn:209"><sup>209</sup></a> Although, not as reduced as patients with Schizophrenia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:210" href="#fn:210"><sup>210</sup></a> Possibly preventing them from developing schizophrenia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:211" href="#fn:211"><sup>211</sup></a> Increased gyrification in gyri by the cerebellum may lead to dysconnectivity in the brain, and therefore, schizotypal symptoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:212" href="#fn:212"><sup>212</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:213" href="#fn:213"><sup>213</sup></a> They may also have a hyporeactive,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:214" href="#fn:214"><sup>214</sup></a> or hyperreactive <a href="/facts/Amygdala/AAy2mHb5">amygdala</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:215" href="#fn:215"><sup>215</sup></a> As well as hyperactive <a href="/facts/Pituitary_gland/gdrQyldF">pituitary glands</a> and <a href="/facts/Putamen/nIPFAP17">putamens</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:216" href="#fn:216"><sup>216</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:217" href="#fn:217"><sup>217</sup></a> It is also possible that lower capacities for <a href="/facts/Prepulse_inhibition/Kaxdy1fj">prepulse inhibition</a> plays a role in StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:218" href="#fn:218"><sup>218</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:219" href="#fn:219"><sup>219</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:220" href="#fn:220"><sup>220</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:221" href="#fn:221"><sup>221</sup></a> Research has suggested that people with StPD can have higher concentrations of <a href="/facts/Homovanillic_acid/mQMS6f7k">Homovanillic acids</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:222" href="#fn:222"><sup>222</sup></a> Abnormalities in the <a href="/facts/Cave_of_septum_pellucidum/7eYbaLaQ">cave of septum pellucidum</a> may also be present.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:223" href="#fn:223"><sup>223</sup></a> In people predisposed to the development of Schizophrenia spectrum disorders, the consumption of <a href="/facts/Cannabis/gjdsgtoh">cannabis</a> can induce the onset of StPD or other disorders with psychotic symptoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:224" href="#fn:224"><sup>224</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:225" href="#fn:225"><sup>225</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:226" href="#fn:226"><sup>226</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:227" href="#fn:227"><sup>227</sup></a> </p> <h3>Environmental</h3> <p>Unique environmental factors, which differ from shared sibling experiences, have been found to play a role in the development of StPD and its dimensions. There is evidence to suggest that <a href="/facts/Parenting_styles/7pbMwYHd">parenting styles</a>, early separation, <a href="/facts/Childhood_trauma/7VzHUagf">childhood trauma</a>, and childhood neglect can lead to the development of schizotypal traits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:228" href="#fn:228"><sup>228</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:229" href="#fn:229"><sup>229</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:230" href="#fn:230"><sup>230</sup></a> Neglect, abuse, stress,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:231" href="#fn:231"><sup>231</sup></a> trauma,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:232" href="#fn:232"><sup>232</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:233" href="#fn:233"><sup>233</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:234" href="#fn:234"><sup>234</sup></a> or family dysfunction during childhood may increase the risk of developing schizotypal personality disorder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:235" href="#fn:235"><sup>235</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:236" href="#fn:236"><sup>236</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:237" href="#fn:237"><sup>237</sup></a> There is also evidence indicating that disruptions in brain development during the prenatal period could affect the development of StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:238" href="#fn:238"><sup>238</sup></a> Over time, children learn to interpret social cues and respond appropriately but for unknown reasons this process does not work well for people with this disorder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:239" href="#fn:239"><sup>239</sup></a> During childhood, people with StPD may have seen little <a href="/facts/Affect_(psychology)/jEQ6IWSm">emotional expression</a> from their parents. Another possibility is that they were excessively criticized or felt like they were constantly under threat,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:240" href="#fn:240"><sup>240</sup></a> potentially resulting in the onset of social anxiety, strange thinking patterns,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:241" href="#fn:241"><sup>241</sup></a> and blunted affect present in StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:242" href="#fn:242"><sup>242</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:243" href="#fn:243"><sup>243</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:244" href="#fn:244"><sup>244</sup></a> Their difficulties in social situations might eventually cause the individual to withdraw from most social interactions, thus leading to <a href="/facts/Asociality/PoqlIkfq">asociality</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:245" href="#fn:245"><sup>245</sup></a> Children with schizotypal symptoms usually are more likely to indulge in <a href="/facts/Fantasy_(psychology)/lDzdcsje">internal fantasies</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:246" href="#fn:246"><sup>246</sup></a> more anxious, socially isolated, and more sensitive to criticism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:247" href="#fn:247"><sup>247</sup></a> People with the most severe cases of StPD usually have a combination of childhood trauma and a genetic basis for their condition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:248" href="#fn:248"><sup>248</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:249" href="#fn:249"><sup>249</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2> <h3>DSM</h3> <p>The latest edition of the <i><a href="/facts/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders/pJ29wFmm">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a>,</i> namely the <a href="/facts/DSM-5-TR/kwhcSJcg">DSM-5-TR</a>, defines STPD as "a pattern of acute discomfort in close relationships, cognitive or perceptual distortions, and eccentricities of behavior" in the section II chapter on personality disorders.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:250" href="#fn:250"><sup>250</sup></a> The diagnosis is based on at least five out of nine diagnostic criteria being met.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:251" href="#fn:251"><sup>251</sup></a> The criteria have been retained from the <a href="/facts/DSM-IV-TR/pJ29wFmm">DSM-IV-TR</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:252" href="#fn:252"><sup>252</sup></a> In addition to the aforementioned criteria, a diagnosis requires that the condition is not merely a part of the manifestation of a <a href="/facts/Psychosis/cVGd7MKK">disorder causing psychosis</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Schizophrenia/FMP4lQ57">schizophrenia</a>, nor of <a href="/facts/Autism_spectrum_disorder/bzouRyMI">autism spectrum disorder</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:253" href="#fn:253"><sup>253</sup></a> </p><p>StPD is characterized by five or more of the following:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:254" href="#fn:254"><sup>254</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>Ideas of reference (but not delusions of reference)</li> <li>Odd beliefs or magical thinking (e.g. the supernatural or <a href="/facts/Stockholm_syndrome/XkI23Gtl">special connection or bond to an abuser</a>)</li> <li>Unusual perceptional experiences (hearing a voice, dissociative experiences, illusions, etc.)</li> <li>Odd thought and speech (e.g. jumping from one topic to another)</li> <li>Eccentric behavior and/or appearance</li> <li>Paranoid ideation</li> <li>Moods and facial expressions that don't match each other or the situation</li> <li>Few to no close supports</li> <li>Excessive social anxiety that remains even with familiar people</li></ul> <p>These symptoms must have begun by early adulthood. </p> <h4>Alternative model</h4> <p class="note">Further information: Alternative DSM-5 model for personality disorders</p> <p>Section III of both the <a href="/facts/DSM-5/kwhcSJcg">DSM-5</a> and <a href="/facts/DSM-5-TR/kwhcSJcg">DSM-5-TR</a> contains the Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders (AMPD). The AMPD defines six specific personality disorders – one of them being STPD – in terms of a description of the disorder; the characteristic manner in which the disorder impacts personality functioning, i.e. identity, self-direction, empathy and intimacy (criterion A); a listing and description of the pathological <a href="/facts/Personality_traits/Iun5UFdX">personality traits</a> associated with the disorder (criterion B); and a section dedicated to <a href="/facts/Specifier_(psychology)/5DF2UHMP">specifiers</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:255" href="#fn:255"><sup>255</sup></a> </p><p>General personality impairment in individuals with STPD, according to the AMPD, involves a fragmented sense of self and difficulty distinguishing personal identity from others. Emotional expression may appear unusual or disconnected from the situation. They often lack clear goals or consistent personal values. Understanding social dynamics is challenging, leading to frequent misinterpretations of others' intentions. Close relationships are difficult to maintain due to suspicion and discomfort in social settings. A diagnosis requires impairment in at least two of these areas. At least two of these elements must have a "moderate or greater impairment".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:256" href="#fn:256"><sup>256</sup></a> The AMPD lists six pathological traits, from the domains of detachment and psychoticism for STPD. Any four or more of these are required for a diagnosis to be made. Other traits can be included in the diagnosis as specifiers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:257" href="#fn:257"><sup>257</sup></a> </p><p>The patient must also meet the general criteria C through G for a personality disorder, which state that the traits and symptoms being displayed by the patient must be stable and unchanging over time with an onset of at least adolescence or early adulthood, visible in a variety of situations, not caused by another mental disorder, not caused by a substance or medical condition, and abnormal in comparison to a person's developmental stage and culture/religion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:258" href="#fn:258"><sup>258</sup></a> </p> <h3>ICD</h3> <p>Neither the <a href="/facts/ICD-10/yEv7S7Gp">ICD-10</a> nor the <a href="/facts/ICD-11/AAItcoCH">ICD-11</a> conceptualize STPD as being a personality disorder. Instead, it is listed together with psychotic disorders as "Schizotypal disorder" (<a href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#18178000">6A22</a>) in the ICD-11, and as (<a href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/F21">F21</a>) in the ICD-10. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/ICD-11_classification_of_personality_disorders/fwTqsyn4">ICD-11 classification of personality disorders</a> differs substantially from the previous edition, <a href="/facts/ICD-10/yEv7S7Gp">ICD-10</a>. All distinct PDs have been merged into one: <i>personality disorder</i> (<a href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#941859884">6D10</a>), which can be coded as <i>mild</i> (<a href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#263226710">6D10.0</a>), <i>moderate</i> (<a href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#758339377">6D10.1</a>), <i>severe</i> (<a href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#40156192">6D10.2</a>), or <i>severity unspecified</i> (<a href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#941859884%2Funspecified">6D10.Z</a>). Along with the severity levels, <i>Prominent personality traits or patterns</i> (<a href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#1128733473">6D11</a>) can be specified. As such, there is no specific PD diagnosis for STPD. </p> <h3>Differential diagnosis</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th>Diagnosis</th><th>Details</th></tr><tr><td>Other mental disorders with <a href="/facts/Psychosis/cVGd7MKK">psychotic symptoms</a></td><td>Unlike <a href="/facts/Delusional_disorder/L3TjYt6H">delusional disorder</a>, <a href="/facts/Schizophrenia/FMP4lQ57">schizophrenia</a>, or <a href="/facts/Mood_disorder/Y0Mjq3QR">mood disorders</a> with psychotic features, StPD is not characterized by a persistent period of psychotic symptoms. StPD symptoms must also persist when psychotic symptoms are not present.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:259" href="#fn:259"><sup>259</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:260" href="#fn:260"><sup>260</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Personality change due to another medical condition</td><td>Symptoms similar to those of StPD can appear due to other medical conditions that affect the <a href="/facts/Central_nervous_system/k8I6To97">central nervous system</a> or <a href="/facts/Substance_use_disorder/pSbdzb6a">substance use disorders</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>Other personality disorders</td><td>Other personality disorders can have symptoms similar to StPD. People with schizotypal personality disorder, <a href="/facts/Paranoid_personality_disorder/tULyBB9c">paranoid personality disorder</a> and <a href="/facts/Schizoid_personality_disorder/A9QXVE1s">schizoid personality disorder</a> can also be socially detached and have <a href="/facts/Reduced_affect_display/6zUQyoh1">blunted affects</a>, but without the <a href="/facts/Cognitive_distortion/BD2GY3GS">cognitive</a> or perceptual distortions of StPD. Individuals with StPD and people with <a href="/facts/Avoidant_personality_disorder/0oYpmo4J">avoidant personality disorder</a> can have limited close relationships. However, people with AvPD rarely have the eccentric behaviour of StPD. Psychotic-like symptoms can also appear in <a href="/facts/Borderline_personality_disorder/VFaa63gE">borderline personality disorder</a>, but those with BPD fear social isolation while those with StPD are comfortable with it. People with StPD are also usually less impulsive than people with BPD. Individuals with <a href="/facts/Narcissistic_personality_disorder/Q3a0lrXm">narcissistic personality disorder</a> may also appear socially alienated, however, this is due to fears of having flaws noticed by others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:261" href="#fn:261"><sup>261</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Differential diagnosis with the following disorders should also be considered: </p> <ul><li>Other disorders with psychotic symptoms: (e.g., schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or depressive disorder with psychotic features)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:262" href="#fn:262"><sup>262</sup></a></li> <li>Paranoid, schizoid, or avoidant personality disorders<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:263" href="#fn:263"><sup>263</sup></a></li> <li>Dissociative identity disorder (DID)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Communication_disorder/4PQQVnMf">Communication disorders</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:264" href="#fn:264"><sup>264</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>Screening</h3> <p>There are various methods of <a href="/facts/Screening_(medicine)/YhrXum3t">screening</a> for schizotypal personality. The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) measures nine traits of StPD using a <a href="/facts/Self-report_study/1NTtscfD">self-report</a> assessment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:265" href="#fn:265"><sup>265</sup></a> The nine traits referenced are Ideas of Reference, Excessive Social Anxiety, Odd Beliefs or Magical Thinking, Unusual Perceptual Experiences, Odd or Eccentric Behavior, No Close Friends, Odd Speech, Constricted Affect, and Suspiciousness. A study found that of the participants who scored in the top 10th percentile of all the SPQ scores, 55% were clinically diagnosed with StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:266" href="#fn:266"><sup>266</sup></a> It has been adapted into a computerized adaptive version, known as the SPQ-CAT.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:267" href="#fn:267"><sup>267</sup></a> A method that measures the risk of developing psychosis through self-reports is the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scale (WSS).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:268" href="#fn:268"><sup>268</sup></a> The WSS divides schizotypal personality traits into 4 scales for Perceptual Aberration, Magical Ideation, Revised Social Anhedonia, and Physical Anhedonia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:269" href="#fn:269"><sup>269</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:270" href="#fn:270"><sup>270</sup></a> A comparison of the SPQ and the WSS suggests that these measures should be cautiously used for screening of StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:271" href="#fn:271"><sup>271</sup></a> </p><p>When screening for StPD, it is difficult to distinguish between schizotypal personality disorder and <a href="/facts/Autism_spectrum_disorder/bzouRyMI">autism spectrum disorder</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:272" href="#fn:272"><sup>272</sup></a> In order to develop better screening tools, researchers are looking into the importance of <a href="/facts/Ipseity_disturbance/g6G1m7bs">ipseity disturbance</a>, which is characteristic of <a href="/facts/Schizophrenia_spectrum/ltEzWjDE">schizophrenia spectrum</a> disorders such as StPD but not of autism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:273" href="#fn:273"><sup>273</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:274" href="#fn:274"><sup>274</sup></a> </p> <h3>Millon's subtypes</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Theodore_Millon/x4WmNeN3">Theodore Millon</a> proposes two subtypes of schizotypal personality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:275" href="#fn:275"><sup>275</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:276" href="#fn:276"><sup>276</sup></a> Any individual with schizotypal personality disorder may exhibit either one of the following somewhat different subtypes (note that Millon believes it is rare for a personality to show one pure variant, but rather a mixture of one major variant with one or more secondary variants): </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Subtype</th><th>Features</th><th>Personality traits</th></tr><tr><td>Insipid schizotypal</td><td>A structural exaggeration of the passive-detached pattern. It includes <a href="/facts/Schizoid_personality_disorder/A9QXVE1s">schizoid</a>, <a href="/facts/Depressive_personality_disorder/tuJ6LYU8">depressive</a> and <a href="/facts/Dependent_personality_disorder/s4g6ST3R">dependent</a> features.</td><td>Sense of strangeness and nonbeing; overtly drab, sluggish, inexpressive; internally bland, barren, indifferent, and insensitive; obscured, vague, and tangential thoughts.</td></tr><tr><td>Timorous schizotypal</td><td>A structural exaggeration of the active-detached pattern. It includes <a href="/facts/Avoidant_personality_disorder/0oYpmo4J">avoidant</a> and <a href="/facts/Passive-aggressive_personality_disorder/y4GfkFwh">negativistic</a> features.</td><td>Warily apprehensive, watchful, suspicious, guarded, shrinking, deadens excess sensitivity; alienated from self and others; intentionally blocks, reverses, or disqualifies own thoughts.</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Millon's typology of personality disorders was influential in the development of the <a href="/facts/DSM-III/pJ29wFmm">DSM-III</a>, particularly with respect to distinguishing between schizoid, schizotypal and avoidant personality disorders.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:277" href="#fn:277"><sup>277</sup></a> These had previously been considered different surface-level expressions of the same underlying personality structure, and some psychologists, particularly those working in <a href="/facts/Psychoanalytic/gYCbGpPv">psychoanalytic</a> or <a href="/facts/Psychodynamic/JIuNdo0E">psychodynamic</a> traditions, still take these personality disorders to be essentially similar.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:278" href="#fn:278"><sup>278</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:279" href="#fn:279"><sup>279</sup></a> </p> <h3>Common comorbidities</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Antisocial_personality_disorder/RK4jEtpT">Antisocial personality disorder</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:280" href="#fn:280"><sup>280</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Avoidant_personality_disorder/0oYpmo4J">Avoidant personality disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Bipolar_disorder/aMDwXbV0">Bipolar disorder</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:281" href="#fn:281"><sup>281</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Borderline_personality_disorder/VFaa63gE">Borderline personality disorder</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:282" href="#fn:282"><sup>282</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Dysthymia/bDUdlrQ5">Dysthymia</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:283" href="#fn:283"><sup>283</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:284" href="#fn:284"><sup>284</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Narcissistic_personality_disorder/Q3a0lrXm">Narcissistic personality disorder</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:285" href="#fn:285"><sup>285</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Obsessive%25E2%2580%2593compulsive_disorder/bIhDh4dz">Obsessive–compulsive disorder</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:286" href="#fn:286"><sup>286</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:287" href="#fn:287"><sup>287</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:288" href="#fn:288"><sup>288</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:289" href="#fn:289"><sup>289</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:290" href="#fn:290"><sup>290</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:291" href="#fn:291"><sup>291</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Major_depressive_disorder/l2lQeWqr">Major depressive disorder</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:292" href="#fn:292"><sup>292</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:293" href="#fn:293"><sup>293</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Paranoid_personality_disorder/tULyBB9c">Paranoid personality disorder</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:294" href="#fn:294"><sup>294</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder/9etKu7bX">Post-traumatic stress disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Schizoid_personality_disorder/A9QXVE1s">Schizoid personality disorder</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:295" href="#fn:295"><sup>295</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Schizophrenia/FMP4lQ57">Schizophrenia</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:296" href="#fn:296"><sup>296</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:297" href="#fn:297"><sup>297</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:298" href="#fn:298"><sup>298</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:299" href="#fn:299"><sup>299</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Substance_use_disorder/pSbdzb6a">Substance use disorders</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:300" href="#fn:300"><sup>300</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:301" href="#fn:301"><sup>301</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Social_anxiety_disorder/25XIzJ0o">Social anxiety disorder</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:302" href="#fn:302"><sup>302</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Dissociative_identity_disorder/VHtKqbus">Dissociative identity disorder</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:303" href="#fn:303"><sup>303</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:304" href="#fn:304"><sup>304</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:305" href="#fn:305"><sup>305</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="treatment">Treatment</h2> <h3>Medication</h3> <p>StPD is rarely seen as the primary reason for treatment in a clinical setting, but it often occurs as a comorbid finding with other mental disorders. When patients with StPD have prescribed pharmaceuticals, they are usually prescribed <a href="/facts/Antipsychotic/7bNTg7T3">antipsychotics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:306" href="#fn:306"><sup>306</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:307" href="#fn:307"><sup>307</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:308" href="#fn:308"><sup>308</sup></a> However, the use of neuroleptic drugs in the schizotypal population is in great doubt.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:309" href="#fn:309"><sup>309</sup></a> The antipsychotics which show promise as treatments for StPD include <a href="/facts/Cariprazine/jDdmF9kM">olanzapine</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:310" href="#fn:310"><sup>310</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Risperidone/xpFEYzoF">risperidone</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:311" href="#fn:311"><sup>311</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:312" href="#fn:312"><sup>312</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Haloperidol/ue4TJKmu">haloperidol</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:313" href="#fn:313"><sup>313</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Tiotixene/abXBrbQb">thiothixene</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:314" href="#fn:314"><sup>314</sup></a> The antidepressant <a href="/facts/Fluoxetine/U28lM3Pm">fluoxetine</a> may also be helpful.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:315" href="#fn:315"><sup>315</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:316" href="#fn:316"><sup>316</sup></a> While people with schizotypal personality disorder and other attenuated psychotic-spectrum disorders may have a good outcome with neuroleptics in the short term, long-term follow-up suggests significant impairment in daily functioning compared to schizotypal and even schizophrenic people without antipsychotic drug exposure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:317" href="#fn:317"><sup>317</sup></a> Positive, negative, and depressive symptoms were shown to be improved by the use of olanzapine, an antipsychotic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:318" href="#fn:318"><sup>318</sup></a> Those with comorbid OCD and StPD were most positively affected by the use of <a href="/facts/Olanzapine/8BhqJuPM">olanzapine</a> and showed worse outcomes with the use of <a href="/facts/Clomipramine/wnhL4NfS">clomipramine</a>, an antidepressant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:319" href="#fn:319"><sup>319</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Antidepressants/N62ND3Fa">Antidepressants</a> are also sometimes prescribed, whether for StPD proper or for comorbid anxiety and depression.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:320" href="#fn:320"><sup>320</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:321" href="#fn:321"><sup>321</sup></a> However, there is some ambiguity in the efficacy of antidepressants, as many studies have only tested people with StPD and comorbid <a href="/facts/Obsessive%25E2%2580%2593compulsive_disorder/bIhDh4dz">obsessive-compulsive disorder</a> or borderline personality disorder. They have shown little efficacy for treating <a href="/facts/Dysthymia/bDUdlrQ5">dysthymia</a> and <a href="/facts/Anhedonia/SMPHrCon">anhedonia</a> related to StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:322" href="#fn:322"><sup>322</sup></a> Both of these medications are the most frequently prescribed medication for StPD, though the use and efficacy of them should be evaluated differently for every case.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:323" href="#fn:323"><sup>323</sup></a> The use of stimulants has also shown some efficacy, especially for those with worsened cognitive and attentional issues. Patients who have concurrent psychosis should be monitored more closely if stimulants are used as part of their treatment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:324" href="#fn:324"><sup>324</sup></a> Other drugs which may be effective include <a href="/facts/Pergolide/uuGLDCPI">pergolide</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:325" href="#fn:325"><sup>325</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Guanfacine/kXNP14wn">guanfacine</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:326" href="#fn:326"><sup>326</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:327" href="#fn:327"><sup>327</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:328" href="#fn:328"><sup>328</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:329" href="#fn:329"><sup>329</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Dihydrexidine/1H9ewY2E">dihydrexidine</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:330" href="#fn:330"><sup>330</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:331" href="#fn:331"><sup>331</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:332" href="#fn:332"><sup>332</sup></a> </p><h3>Therapy</h3> <p>According to <a href="/facts/Theodore_Millon/x4WmNeN3">Theodore Millon</a>, schizotypal personality disorder is one of the most straightforward personality disorders to identify but one of the most difficult to treat with psychotherapy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:333" href="#fn:333"><sup>333</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Cognitive_remediation_therapy/bw2W2fjt">Cognitive remediation therapy</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:334" href="#fn:334"><sup>334</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:335" href="#fn:335"><sup>335</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:336" href="#fn:336"><sup>336</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Metacognitive_therapy/Qj2v4z3I">metacognitive therapy</a>, supportive psychotherapy,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:337" href="#fn:337"><sup>337</sup></a> social skills training<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:338" href="#fn:338"><sup>338</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy/LRALDkkU">cognitive-behavioral therapy</a> can be effective treatments for the disorder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:339" href="#fn:339"><sup>339</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:340" href="#fn:340"><sup>340</sup></a> Increased social interaction with others may be able to help limit symptoms of StPD.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:341" href="#fn:341"><sup>341</sup></a> Support is crucial for schizotypal patients with predominant <a href="/facts/Paranoia/6SR9jv8y">paranoid</a> symptoms because they may have difficulties even in highly structured groups.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:342" href="#fn:342"><sup>342</sup></a> Persons with StPD usually consider themselves to be simply eccentric or nonconformist; the degree to which they consider their social nonconformity a problem differs from the degree to which it is viewed as a problem in psychiatry. It is difficult to gain rapport with people with StPD because increasing familiarity and intimacy often increase their level of anxiety and discomfort.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:343" href="#fn:343"><sup>343</sup></a> Therapy for StPD must be flexible to face emergencies or unique challenges.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:344" href="#fn:344"><sup>344</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>Psychology portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Boundaries_of_the_mind/v59mIs63">Boundaries of the mind</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/DSM-5_codes/kwhcSJcg">DSM-5 codes (personality disorders)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Paranoid_personality_disorder/tULyBB9c">Paranoid personality disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Schizoid_personality_disorder/A9QXVE1s">Schizoid personality disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Schizophrenia/FMP4lQ57">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Schizothymia/x745tAcs">Schizothymia</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Schizotypy/FRPUFMuE">Schizotypy</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Dissociative_identity_disorder/VHtKqbus">Dissociative identity disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ch%25C5%25ABniby%25C5%258D/aneXUDFK">Chūnibyō</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Sartorius N, Henderson A, Strotzka H, Lipowski Z, Yu-cun S, You-xin X, et al. "The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines" (PDF). www.who.int. World Health Organization. bluebook.doc. pp. 77, 83–4. Retrieved 23 June 2021. <a href="/wiki/Norman_Sartorius" target="_blank">/wiki/Norman_Sartorius</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Rosell DR, Futterman SE, McMaster A, Siever LJ (July 2014). "Schizotypal personality disorder: a current review". Current Psychiatry Reports. 16 (7): 452. doi:10.1007/s11920-014-0452-1. PMC 4182925. PMID 24828284. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4182925" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4182925</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Esterberg ML, Goulding SM, Walker EF (December 2010). "Cluster A Personality Disorders: Schizotypal, Schizoid and Paranoid Personality Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence". Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment. 32 (4): 515–528. doi:10.1007/s10862-010-9183-8. ISSN 0882-2689. PMC 2992453. PMID 21116455. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2992453" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2992453</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, LVR-Klinikum Düsseldorf, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany, Gaebel W, WHO Collaborating Centre on Quality Assurance and Empowerment in Mental Health, Düsseldorf, Germany, Kerst A, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, LVR-Klinikum Düsseldorf, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany, WHO Collaborating Centre on Quality Assurance and Empowerment in Mental Health, Düsseldorf, Germany, et al. (2020-12-24). "CLASSIFICATION AND DIAGNOSIS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA OR OTHER PRIMARY PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS: CHANGES FROM ICD-10 TO ICD-11 AND IMPLEMENTATION IN CLINICAL PRACTICE" (PDF). Psychiatria Danubina. 32 (3–4): 320–324. doi:10.24869/psyd.2020.320. Schizotypal disorder is defined as an enduring pattern of unusual speech, perceptions, beliefs, and behaviours of insufficient intensity to meet requirements for another psychotic disorder in ICD-10 and in ICD11. Yet, schizotypal disorder may be a possible predecessor of schizophrenia (Jablensky 2011, Stein et al. 2020) and is therefore kept in the ICD-11 chapter of primary psychotic disorders, contrary to DSM-5 which classifies schizotypal disorder as a personality disorder.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="http://www.psychiatria-danubina.com/UserDocsImages/pdf/dnb_vol32_no3-4/dnb_vol32_no3-4_320.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.psychiatria-danubina.com/UserDocsImages/pdf/dnb_vol32_no3-4/dnb_vol32_no3-4_320.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM (2010). Psychology. Worth Publishers. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Schacter DL, Gilbert DT, Wegner DM (2010). Psychology. 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