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Comparison of programming languages (object-oriented programming)
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<h2 id="object-construction-and-destruction">Object construction and destruction</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th>construction</th><th>destruction</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/ABAP_Objects/8Db7YbwW">ABAP Objects</a></td><td>data variable type ref to class .create object variable «exporting parameter = argument».<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/APL_(programming_language)/E2sb98gC">APL</a> (Dyalog)</td><td>variable←⎕NEW class «parameters»</td><td>⎕EX 'variable'</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/C%2B%2B/Et0F2qn9">C++</a></td><td>class variable«(parameters)»;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> orclass <a href="/facts/Pointer_(computer_programming)/fPoNzy9b">*</a>variable = <a href="/facts/New_(C%2B%2B)/nNclXwey">new</a> class«(parameters)»;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Delete_(C%2B%2B)/nNclXwey">delete</a> pointer;</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/C_Sharp_(programming_language)/UC2gxeyb">C#</a></td><td rowspan="3">class variable = new class(parameters);</td><td>variable.Dispose();<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Java_(programming_language)/9ScgFyAL">Java</a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/D_(programming_language)/4qIzRjkF">D</a></td><td>destroy(variable);</td></tr><tr><td>eC</td><td>class «instance handle» { «properties/data members assignments, instance method overrides» }</td><td>delete instance handle;</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Objective-C/5mM557BW">Objective-C</a> (<a href="/facts/Cocoa_(API)/p10p5aFI">Cocoa</a>)</td><td>class <a href="/facts/Pointer_(computer_programming)/fPoNzy9b">*</a>variable = [[class alloc ] init]; or class <a href="/facts/Pointer_(computer_programming)/fPoNzy9b">*</a>variable = [[class alloc ] initWithFoo:parameter «bar:parameter ...»];</td><td>[variable release];</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Swift_(programming_language)/A7qHQC32">Swift</a></td><td>let variable = class(parameters)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Python_(programming_language)/YbuGqofa">Python</a></td><td>variable = class(parameters)</td><td>del variable<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> (Normally not needed)</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Visual_Basic_.NET/09mPEo4q">Visual Basic .NET</a></td><td>Dim variable As New class(parameters)</td><td>variable.Dispose()<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Xojo/ColkhLN1">Xojo</a></td><td>Dim variable As New class(parameters)</td><td>variable = Nil</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Eiffel_(programming_language)/gEzPjzmn">Eiffel</a></td><td>create variable orcreate «{TYPE}» variable.make_foo «(parameters)» orvariable := create {TYPE} orvariable := create {TYPE}.make_foo «(parameters)» </td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/PHP/vU6YRJX0">PHP</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Sigil_(computer_programming)/dfEKbFk2">$</a>variable = new class«(parameters)»;</td><td>unset($variable);<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Perl/fx31kjlT">Perl</a> 5</td><td>«my »$variable = class->new«(parameters)»;</td><td>undef($variable);</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Raku_(programming_language)/9eYW7vRJ">Raku</a></td><td>«my »$variable = class.new«(parameters)»;</td><td>$variable.undefine;</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ruby_(programming_language)/BeYSaPSR">Ruby</a></td><td>variable = class.new«(parameters)»</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Windows_PowerShell/G1d10lwn">Windows PowerShell</a></td><td>$variable = New-Object «-TypeName» class ««-ArgumentList» parameters»</td><td>Remove-Variable «-Name» variable</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/OCaml/ThBGLND8">OCaml</a></td><td>let variable = new class «parameters» or let variable = object members end<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></td><td rowspan="2"><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/F_Sharp_(programming_language)/jdXHnYz5">F#</a></td><td>let variable = «new »class(«parameters»)</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Smalltalk/Ru2UPVDE">Smalltalk</a></td><td>The class is an Object.Just send a message to a class, usually #new or #new:, and many others, for example:Point x: 10 y: 20.Array with: -1 with: 3 with: 2.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/JavaScript/XhhIIEsl">JavaScript</a></td><td>var variable = new class«(parameters)» or var variable = { «key1: value1«, key2: value2 ...»»}</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Object_Pascal/cuGkuISv">Object Pascal</a> (<a href="/facts/Delphi_(programming_language)/sUFUXQ8r">Delphi</a>)</td><td>ClassVar := ClassType.ConstructorName(parameters);</td><td>ClassVar.Free;</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Scala_(programming_language)/ebL8o6AK">Scala</a></td><td>val obj = new Object // no parametersval obj = new Object(arg0, arg1, arg2...)val obj = Object(arg0, arg1, arg2...) // case classval obj = new Object(arg0, arg1, param1 = value1, ...) // named parameters</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/COBOL/wVnhqs0k">COBOL</a></td><td>INVOKE class "NEW" RETURNING variable orMOVE class::"NEW" TO variable</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Cobra_(programming_language)/KoaKnA5c">Cobra</a></td><td>variable «as class» = class(parameters)</td><td>variable.dispose</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/ISLISP/4qnw7Nyn">ISLISP</a></td><td>(setq variable (create (class <some-class> [:field-1 value-1 [:field-2 value-2] ..])))</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="class-declaration">Class declaration</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th><a href="/facts/Class_(computer_science)/zvzkSAtE">class</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Protocol_(object-oriented_programming)/jDMpXoLN">protocol</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Namespace/9efXwMtV">namespace</a></th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td>class name definition «inheriting from parentclass». «interfaces: interfaces.» method_and_field_declarations endclass.class name implementation. method_implementations endclass.</td><td>interface name. members endinterface.</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>APL (Dyalog)</td><td>:Class name «:parentclass» «,interfaces»members:EndClass</td><td>:Interface namemembers:EndInterface</td><td>:Namespace namemembers:EndNamespace</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td>class name« : public parentclasses<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a>» { members };</td><td></td><td rowspan="2">namespace name { members }</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td rowspan="2">class name« : «parentclass»«, interfaces»» { members }</td><td rowspan="2">interface name« : parentinterfaces» { members }</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td>module name; members</td></tr><tr><td>eC</td><td>class name« : base class» { «default member values assignments» «members» }</td><td></td><td>namespace name;</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td rowspan="2">class name« extends parentclass»« implements interfaces» { members }</td><td rowspan="2">interface name« extends parentinterfaces» { members }</td><td>package name; members</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td>namespace name; members</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C</td><td>@interface name« : parentclass»<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a>«< protocols >» { instance_fields } method_and_property_declarations @end @implementation name method_implementations @end<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></td><td>@protocol name«< parentprotocols >» members @end</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td>class name« : «parentclass»«, protocols»» { members }</td><td>protocol name« : parentprotocols» { members }</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>class name«(parentclasses<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a>)»:Tab ↹ members</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a></td><td>__all__ = [ member1,member2,... ]</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>Class name« Inherits parentclass»« Implements interfaces»members End Class</td><td>Interface name« Inherits parentinterfaces»members End Interface</td><td>Namespace namemembers End Namespace</td></tr><tr><td>Xojo</td><td>Class name« Inherits parentclass»« Implements interfaces»members End Class</td><td>Interface name« Inherits parentinterfaces»members End Interface</td><td>Module namemembers End Module</td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td>class name« inherit parentclasses<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a>»membersend</td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td>package name; «@ISA = qw(parentclasses<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a>);» members 1;</td><td></td><td>package name; members</td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>class name «is parentclass «is parentclass ...<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a>»» «does role «does role ...»» { members }</td><td>role name «does role «does role ...»» { members }</td><td>module name { members }</td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>class name« < parentclass» members end</td><td></td><td>module name members end</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td>class name «parameters» = object «(self)» «inherit parentclass «parameters» «inherit parentclass «parameters» ...<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a>»» members end</td><td></td><td>module name members</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>type name«(parameters)» «as this» = class «inherit parentclass«(parameters)» «as base»» members «interface interface with implementation «interface interface with implementation ...»» end</td><td>type name = interface members end</td><td>namespace name members</td></tr><tr><td>Smalltalk</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></td><td></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>JavaScript (ES6)</td><td>class name «extends parentclass» { members } </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Object Pascal (Delphi)</td><td><p>ClassName = Class «(ClassParent, Interfaces)»private// Private members(include Methods and Fields)public// Public membersprotected// Protected memberspublished// Published membersend;</p></td><td></td><td>package name; members</td></tr><tr><td>Scala</td><td>class ConcreteClass(constructor params)extends ParentClasswith Trait1 with Trait2 with Trait2 {// members}</td><td>trait TraitNameextends OtherTrait1with OtherTrait2 with OtherTrait3 {// members}</td><td>package name</td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td>CLASS-ID. name« INHERITS« FROM» parentclasses».<ul>FACTORY« IMPLEMENTS interfaces».</ul><ul>class-members</ul><ul>END FACTORY.</ul><ul>OBJECT« IMPLEMENTS interfaces».</ul><ul>instance-members</ul><ul>END OBJECT.</ul><p>END CLASS name.</p></td><td>INTERFACE-ID. name« INHERITS« FROM» interfaces».<ul>members</ul><p>END INTERFACE name.</p></td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Cobra</td><td>class name «inherits parentclass» «implements interfaces»Tab ↹ members</td><td>interface name «inherits parentinterfaces»Tab ↹ members</td><td>namespace nameTab ↹ members</td></tr><tr><td>ISLISP</td><td>(defclass name (base-class) ((x :initform 0 :accessor get-x :initarg x)) (:abstractp nil))</td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="class-members">Class members</h2> <h3>Constructors and destructors</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th><a href="/facts/Constructor_(computer_science)/8JNHsH5H">constructor</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Destructor_(computer_science)/gr4051ve">destructor</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Finalizer/6vU0SvEb">finalizer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a></th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td>methods constructor «importing parameter = argument»method constructor. instructions endmethod.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a></td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>APL (Dyalog)</td><td>∇ name:Implements Constructor «:Base «expr»»instructions∇</td><td></td><td>∇ name:Implements Destructorinstructions∇</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td>class(«parameters») «: initializers<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a>» { instructions }</td><td>~class() { instructions }</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td>class(«parameters») { instructions }</td><td>void Dispose(){ instructions }</td><td>~class() { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td>this(«parameters») { instructions }</td><td></td><td>~this() { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>eC</td><td>class() { instructions }</td><td>~class() { instructions }</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td>class(«parameters») { instructions }</td><td></td><td>void finalize() { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a></td><td></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C (Cocoa)</td><td>- (id)init { instructions... return self; } or - (id)initWithFoo:parameter «bar:parameter ...» { instructions... return self; }</td><td>- (void)dealloc { instructions }</td><td>- (void)finalize { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td>init(«parameters») { instructions }</td><td>deinit { instructions }</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>def __init__(self«, parameters»): Tab ↹ instructions</td><td></td><td>def __del__(self): Tab ↹ instructions</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>Sub New(«parameters») instructions End Sub</td><td>Sub Dispose() instructions End Sub</td><td>Overrides Sub Finalize() instructions End Sub</td></tr><tr><td>Xojo</td><td>Sub Constructor(«parameters») instructions End Sub</td><td>Sub Destructor() instructions End Sub</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td>function __construct(«parameters») { instructions }</td><td>function __destruct() { instructions }</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td>sub new { my ($class«, parameters») = @_; my $self = {}; instructions ... bless($self, $class); return $self; }</td><td>sub DESTROY { my ($self) = @_; instructions }</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>submethod BUILD { instructions } or «multi » method new(««$self: »parameters») { self.bless(*, field1 => value1, ...); ... instructions }</td><td>submethod DESTROY { instructions }</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>def initialize«(parameters)» instructions end</td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td>initializer instructions<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a></td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>do instructions or new(parameters) = expression<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a></td><td>member this.Dispose() = instructions</td><td>override this.Finalize() = instructions</td></tr><tr><td>JavaScript</td><td>function name(«parameters») { instructions }<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a></td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>JavaScript (ES6)</td><td>constructor(«parameters») { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td>—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a></td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>Cobra</td><td>cue init(parameters)Tab ↹ base.initTab ↹ instructions</td><td>def disposeTab ↹ instructions</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ISLISP</td><td>(defmethod initialize-object ((instance <class-name>) initvalues)</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Fields</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th>public</th><th>private</th><th>protected</th><th>friend</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td>public section.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> data field type type.</td><td>private section.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> data field type type.</td><td>protected section.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> data field type type.</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>APL (Dyalog)</td><td>:Field Public field «← value»</td><td>:Field «Private» field «← value»</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td>public: type field;</td><td>private: type field;</td><td>protected: type field;</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td rowspan="3">public type field «= value»;</td><td rowspan="3">private type field «= value»;</td><td>protected type field «= value»;</td><td>internal type field «= value»;</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td></td><td>package type field «= value»;</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td>protected type field «= value»;</td><td>type field «= value»;</td></tr><tr><td>eC</td><td>public type field;</td><td>private type field;</td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td>feature field: TYPE</td><td>feature {NONE} field: TYPE</td><td>feature {current_class} field: TYPE</td><td>feature {FRIEND} field: TYPE</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C</td><td>@public type field;</td><td>@private type field;</td><td>@protected type field;</td><td>@package type field;</td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td colspan="4">—</td></tr><tr><td>Smalltalk</td><td colspan="2">—</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a></td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>self.field = value<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a></td><td>—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a></td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>Public field As type «= value»</td><td>Private field As type «= value»</td><td>Protected field As type «= value»</td><td>Friend field As type «= value»</td></tr><tr><td>Xojo</td><td>Public field As type «= value»</td><td>Private field As type «= value»</td><td>Protected field As type «= value»</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td>public $field «= value»;</td><td>private $field «= value»;</td><td>protected $field «= value»;</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td>$self->{field} = value;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a></td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>has« type »$.field« is rw»</td><td>has« type »$!field</td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td colspan="2">—</td><td><a href="/facts/Sigil_(computer_programming)/dfEKbFk2">@</a>field = value<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td>Add-Member «-MemberType »NoteProperty «-Name »Bar «-Value »value-InputObject variable</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td colspan="2">—</td><td>val «mutable» field = value</td><td rowspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>—</td><td>let «mutable» field = value</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>JavaScript</td><td>this.field = value this["field"] = value<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td>—</td><td>level-number field clauses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a></td><td>—</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Cobra</td><td>var field «as type» «= value»</td><td>var __field «as type» «= value»</td><td>var _field «as type» «= value»</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ISLISP</td><td>(field :initform value :accessor accessor-name :initarg keyword)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Methods</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th>basic/void method</th><th>value-returning method</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td>methods name «importing parameter = argument» «exporting parameter = argument» «changing parameter = argument» «returning value(parameter)»method name. instructions endmethod.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>APL (Dyalog)</td><td>∇ «left argument» name «right arguments»instructions∇</td><td>∇ result ← «left argument» name «right arguments»instructions∇</td></tr><tr><td>C++<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a>type foo(«parameters»);<p>The implementation of methods is usually provided in a separate source file, with the following syntax</p>type class::foo(«parameters») { instructions }<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a></td><td rowspan="4">void foo(«parameters») { instructions }</td><td rowspan="4">type foo(«parameters») { instructions ... return value; }</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td></tr><tr><td>D</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td></tr><tr><td>eC</td><td>void ««type of 'this'»::»foo(«parameters») { instructions }</td><td>type ««type of this»::»foo(«parameters») { instructions ... return value; }</td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td>foo ( «parameters» ) do instructions end</td><td>foo ( «parameters» ): TYPE do instructions... Result := value end</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C</td><td>- (void)foo«:parameter «bar:parameter ...»» { instructions }</td><td>- (type)foo«:parameter «bar:parameter ...»» { instructions... return value; }</td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td>func foo(«parameters») { instructions }</td><td>func foo(«parameters») -> type { instructions... return value }</td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>def foo(self«, parameters»): Tab ↹ instructions</td><td>def foo(self«, parameters»): Tab ↹ instructions Tab ↹ return value</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>Sub Foo(«parameters») instructions End Sub</td><td>Function Foo(«parameters») As type instructions ... Return value End Function</td></tr><tr><td>Xojo</td><td>Sub Foo(«parameters») instructions End Sub</td><td>Function Foo(«parameters») As type instructions ... Return value End Function</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td>function foo(«parameters»)«: void» { instructions }</td><td>function foo(«parameters»)«: type» { instructions ... return value; }</td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td>sub foo { my ($self«, parameters») = @_; instructions }</td><td>sub foo { my ($self«, parameters») = @_; instructions ... return value; }</td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>«has »«multi »method foo(««$self: »parameters») { instructions }</td><td>«has «type »»«multi »method foo(««$self: »parameters») { instructions ... return value; }</td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>def foo«(parameters)» instructions end</td><td>def foo«(parameters)» instructions expression resulting in return value end or def foo«(parameters)» instructions return value end</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td>Add-Member «-MemberType» ScriptMethod «-Name» foo «-Value» { «param(parameters)» instructions } -InputObject variable</td><td>Add-Member «-MemberType» ScriptMethod «-Name» foo «-Value» { «param(parameters)» instructions ... return value } -InputObject variable</td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td rowspan="2">—</td><td>method foo «parameters» = expression</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>member this.foo(«parameters») = expression</td></tr><tr><td>JavaScript</td><td>this.method = function(«parameters») {instructions} name«.prototype.method = function(«parameters») {instructions}<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a></td><td> this.method = function(«parameters») {instructions... return value;} name«.prototype.method = function(«parameters») {instructions... return value;}<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Javascript (ES6)</td><td>foo(«parameters») {instructions}</td><td>foo(«parameters») {instructions... return value;}</td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td>METHOD-ID. foo.«DATA DIVISION.LINKAGE SECTION.parameter declarations»PROCEDURE DIVISION« USING parameters».<ul>instructions</ul><p>END METHOD foo.</p></td><td>METHOD-ID. foo.DATA DIVISION.LINKAGE SECTION.«parameter declarations»result-var declarationPROCEDURE DIVISION« USING parameters» RETURNING result-var.<ul>instructions</ul><p>END METHOD foo.</p></td></tr><tr><td>Cobra</td><td>def foo(parameters)Tab ↹ instructions</td><td>def foo(parameters) as typeTab ↹ instructionsTab ↹ return value</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ISLISP</td><td>(defgeneric method (arg1 arg2))(defmethod method ((arg1 <class1> arg2 <class2>) ...)</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Properties</h3> <p>How to declare a property named "Bar" </p> <h4>Manually implemented</h4> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th>read-write</th><th>read-only</th><th>write-only</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>APL (Dyalog)</td><td>:Property Bar∇ result ← Getinstructions∇∇ Set argumentsinstructions∇:EndProperty Bar</td><td>:Property Bar∇ result ← Getinstructions∇:EndProperty Bar</td><td>:Property Bar∇ Set argumentsinstructions∇:EndProperty Bar</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td>type Bar { get { instructions ... return value; } set { instructions } }</td><td>type Bar { get { instructions ... return value; } }</td><td>type Bar { set { instructions } }</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td>@property type bar() { instructions ... return value; } @property type bar(type value) { instructions ... return value; }</td><td>@property type bar() { instructions ... return value; }</td><td>@property type bar(type value) { instructions ... return value; }</td></tr><tr><td>eC</td><td>property type Bar { get { instructions ... return value; } set { instructions } }</td><td>property type Bar { get { instructions ... return value; } }</td><td>property type Bar { set { instructions } }</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C 2.0 (Cocoa)</td><td>@property (readwrite) type bar; and then inside @implementation - (type)bar { instructions } - (void)setBar:(type)value { instructions }</td><td>@property (readonly) type bar; and then inside @implementation - (type)bar { instructions }</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td>var bar : type { get { instructions } set«(newBar)» { instructions } }</td><td>var bar : type { instructions }</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td>feature -- Access x: TYPE assign set_x feature -- Settings set_x (a_x: like x) do instructions ensure x_set: verification end</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>def setBar(self, value): Tab ↹ instructionsdef getBar(self):Tab ↹ instructionsTab ↹ return valuebar = property(getBar, setBar)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a></td><td>def getBar(self): Tab ↹ instructionsTab ↹ return valuebar = property(getBar)</td><td>def setBar(self, value): Tab ↹ instructionsbar = property(fset = setBar)</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>Property Bar() As typeGetinstructionsReturn valueEnd GetSet (ByVal Value As type)instructionsEnd SetEnd Property</td><td>ReadOnly Property Bar() As typeGetinstructionsReturn valueEnd GetEnd Property</td><td>WriteOnly Property Bar() As typeSet (ByVal Value As type)instructionsEnd SetEnd Property</td></tr><tr><td>Xojo</td><td>ComputedProperty Bar() As typeGetinstructionsReturn valueEnd GetSet (ByVal Value As type)instructionsEnd SetEnd ComputedProperty</td><td>ComputedProperty Bar() As typeGetinstructionsReturn valueEnd GetEnd ComputedProperty</td><td>ComputedProperty Bar() As typeSet (value As type)instructionsEnd SetEnd ComputedProperty</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td>function __get($property) { switch ($property) { case 'Bar' : instructions ... return value; } }function __set($property, $value) { switch ($property) { case 'Bar' : instructions } }</td><td>function __get($property) { switch ($property) { case 'Bar' : instructions ... return value; } }</td><td>function __set($property, $value) { switch ($property) { case 'Bar' : instructions } }</td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td>sub Bar { my $self = shift; if (my $Bar = shift) { # setter $self->{Bar} = $Bar; return $self; } else { # getter return $self->{Bar}; }}</td><td>sub Bar { my $self = shift; if (my $Bar = shift) { # read-only die "Bar is read-only\n"; } else { # getter return $self->{Bar}; }}</td><td>sub Bar { my $self = shift; if (my $Bar = shift) { # setter $self->{Bar} = $Bar; return $self; } else { # write-only die "Bar is write-only\n"; }}</td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>def bar instructions expression resulting in return value end def bar=(value) instructions end</td><td>def bar instructions expression resulting in return value end</td><td>def bar=(value) instructions end</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td>Add-Member «-MemberType »ScriptProperty «-Name »Bar «-Value »{ instructions ... return value } «-SecondValue »{ instructions } -InputObject variable</td><td>Add-Member «-MemberType »ScriptProperty «-Name »Bar «-Value »{ instructions ... return value} -InputObject variable</td><td>Add-Member «-MemberType »ScriptProperty «-Name »Bar -SecondValue { instructions } -InputObject variable</td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>member this.Bar with get() = expression and set(value) = expression</td><td>member this.Bar = expression</td><td>member this.Bar with set(value) = expression</td></tr><tr><td>JavaScript (ES6)</td><td>get bar(«parameters») { instructions ... return value}set bar(«parameters») { instructions } </td><td>get bar(«parameters») { instructions ... return value}</td><td>set bar(«parameters») { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td>METHOD-ID. GET PROPERTY bar.DATA DIVISION.LINKAGE SECTION.return-var declarationPROCEDURE DIVISION RETURNING return-var.<ul>instructions</ul><p>END METHOD.METHOD-ID. SET PROPERTY bar.DATA DIVISION.LINKAGE SECTION.value-var declarationPROCEDURE DIVISION USING value-var.</p><ul>instructions</ul><p>END METHOD.</p></td><td>METHOD-ID. GET PROPERTY bar.DATA DIVISION.LINKAGE SECTION.return-var declarationPROCEDURE DIVISION RETURNING return-var.<ul>instructions</ul><p>END METHOD.</p></td><td>METHOD-ID. SET PROPERTY bar.DATA DIVISION.LINKAGE SECTION.value-var declarationPROCEDURE DIVISION USING value-var.<ul>instructions</ul><p>END METHOD.</p></td></tr><tr><td>Cobra</td><td>pro bar «as type»Tab ↹ getTab ↹Tab ↹ instructionsTab ↹Tab ↹ return valueTab ↹ setTab ↹Tab ↹ instructions</td><td>get bar «as type»Tab ↹ instructionsTab ↹ return value</td><td>set bar «as type»Tab ↹ instructions</td></tr><tr><td>ISLISP</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Automatically implemented</h4> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th>read-write</th><th>read-only</th><th>write-only</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td>type Bar { get; set; }</td><td>type Bar { get; private set; }</td><td>type Bar { private get; set; }</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C 2.0 (Cocoa)</td><td>@property (readwrite) type bar; and then inside @implementation @synthesize bar;</td><td>@property (readonly) type bar; and then inside @implementation @synthesize bar;</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td>var bar : type</td><td>let bar : type</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>@propertydef bar(self):Tab ↹instructions@bar.setterdef bar(self, value):Tab ↹instructions</td><td>@propertydef bar(self):Tab ↹instructions</td><td>bar = property()@bar.setterdef bar(self, value):Tab ↹instructions</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>Property Bar As type« = initial_value» (VB 10)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Perl<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a></td><td>use base qw(Class::Accessor);__PACKAGE__->mk_accessors('Bar');</td><td>use base qw(Class::Accessor);__PACKAGE__->mk_ro_accessors('Bar');</td><td>use base qw(Class::Accessor);__PACKAGE__->mk_wo_accessors('Bar');</td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>attr_accessor :bar</td><td>attr_reader :bar</td><td>attr_writer :bar</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>member val Bar = value with get, set</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td>level-number bar clauses PROPERTY.</td><td>level-number bar clauses PROPERTY «WITH» NO SET.</td><td>level-number bar clauses PROPERTY «WITH» NO GET.</td></tr><tr><td>Cobra</td><td>pro bar from var «as type»</td><td>get bar from var «as type»</td><td>set bar from var «as type»</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Overloaded operators</h3> <h4>Standard operators</h4> <table><tbody><tr><td></td><th>unary</th><th>binary</th><th>function call</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td>type operator symbol () { instructions }</td><td>type operator symbol (type operand2) { instructions }</td><td>type operator () («parameters») { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td>static type operator symbol(type operand) { instructions }</td><td>static type operator symbol(type operand1, type operand2) { instructions }</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td>type opUnary(string s)() if (s == "symbol") { instructions }</td><td>type opBinary(string s)(type operand2) if (s == "symbol") { instructions } type opBinaryRight(string s)(type operand1) if (s == "symbol") switch (s) { instructions }</td><td>type opCall(«parameters») { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C</td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td>func symbol(operand1 : type) -> returntype { instructions } (outside class)</td><td>func symbol(operand1 : type1, operand2 : type2) -> returntype { instructions } (outside class)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a></td><td>op_name alias "symbol": TYPE do instructions end</td><td>op_name alias "symbol" (operand: TYPE1): TYPE2 do instructions end</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>def __opname__(self): Tab ↹ instructions Tab ↹ return value</td><td>def __opname__(self, operand2): Tab ↹ instructions Tab ↹ return value</td><td>def __call__(self«, parameters»): Tab ↹ instructions Tab ↹ return value</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>Shared Operator symbol(operand As type) As type instructions End Operator</td><td>Shared Operator symbol(operand1 As type, operand2 As type) As type instructions End Operator</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Xojo</td><td>Function Operator_name(operand As type) As type instructions End Function</td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td colspan="2"><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a></td><td>function __invoke(«parameters») { instructions } (PHP 5.3+)</td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td>use overload "symbol" => sub { my ($self) = @_; instructions };</td><td>use overload "symbol" => sub { my ($self, $operand2, $operands_reversed) = @_; instructions };</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>«our «type »»«multi »method prefix:<symbol> («$operand: ») { instructions ... return value; } or «our «type »»«multi »method postfix:<symbol> («$operand: ») { instructions ... return value; } or «our «type »»«multi »method circumfix:<symbol1 symbol2> («$operand: ») { instructions ... return value; }</td><td>«our «type »»«multi »method infix:<symbol> («$operand1: » type operand2) { instructions ... return value; }</td><td>«our «type »»«multi »method postcircumfix:<( )> («$self: » «parameters») { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>def symbol instructions expression resulting in return value end</td><td>def symbol(operand2) instructions expression resulting in return value end</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>static member (symbol) operand = expression</td><td>static member (symbol) (operand1, operand2) = expression</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>ISLISP</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Indexers</h4> <table><tbody><tr><td></td><th>read-write</th><th>read-only</th><th>write-only</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>APL (Dyalog)</td><td>:Property Numbered Default name∇ result ← Getinstructions∇∇ Set argumentsinstructions∇:EndProperty Bar</td><td>:Property Numbered Default Bar∇ result ← Getinstructions∇:EndProperty Bar</td><td>:Property Numbered Default Bar∇ Set argumentsinstructions∇:EndProperty Bar</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td>type& operator[](type index) { instructions }</td><td>type operator[](type index) { instructions }</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td>type this[type index] { get{ instructions } set{ instructions } }</td><td>type this[type index] { get{ instructions } }</td><td>type this[type index] { set{ instructions } }</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td>type opIndex(type index) { instructions } type opIndexAssign(type value, type index) { instructions }</td><td>type opIndex(type index) { instructions }</td><td>type opIndexAssign(type value, type index) { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C (recent Clang compiler)</td><td>—</td><td>- (id)objectAtIndexedSubscript:(NSUInteger)index { instructions return value; } or- (id)objectForKeyedSubscript:(id)index { instructions return value; }</td><td>- (void)setObject:(id)value atIndexedSubscript:(NSUInteger)index { instructions } or- (void)setObject:(id)value forKeyedSubscript:(id)index { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td>subscript (index : type) -> returntype { get { instructions } set«(newIndex)» { instructions } }</td><td>subscript (index : type) -> returntype { instructions }</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a></td><td>bracket_name alias "[]" (index: TYPE): TYPE assign set_item do instructions end set_item (value: TYPE; index: TYPE): do instructions end</td><td>bracket_name alias "[]" (index: TYPE): TYPE do instructions end</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>def __getitem__(self, index): Tab ↹ instructions Tab ↹ return value def __setitem__(self, index, value): Tab ↹ instructions</td><td>def __getitem__(self, index): Tab ↹ instructions Tab ↹ return value</td><td>def __setitem__(self, index, value): Tab ↹ instructions</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>Default Property Item(Index As type) As type Get instructions End Get Set(ByVal Value As type) instructions End Set End Property</td><td>Default ReadOnly Property Item(Index As type) As type Get instructions End Get End Property</td><td>Default WriteOnly Property Item(Index As type) As type Set(ByVal Value As type) instructions End Set End Property</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td colspan="3"><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td colspan="3"><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>«our «type »»«multi »method postcircumfix:<[ ]> is rw («$self: » type $index) { instructions ... return value; } or «our «type »»«multi »method postcircumfix:<{ }> is rw («$self: » type $key) { instructions ... return value; }</td><td>«our «type »»«multi »method postcircumfix:<[ ]>(«$self: » type $index) { instructions ... return value; } or «our «type »»«multi »method postcircumfix:<{ }> («$self: » type $key) { instructions ... return value; }</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>def [](index) instructions expression resulting in return value end def []=(index, value) instructions end</td><td>def [](index) instructions expression resulting in return value end</td><td>def []=(index, value) instructions end</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>member this.Item with get(index) = expression and set index value = expression</td><td>member this.Item with get(index) = expression</td><td>member this.Item with set index value = expression</td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>Cobra</td><td>pro[index «as type»] as typeTab ↹ getTab ↹Tab ↹ instructionsTab ↹Tab ↹ return valueTab ↹ setTab ↹Tab ↹ instructions</td><td>get[index «as type»] as typeTab ↹ instructionsTab ↹ return value</td><td>set[index «as type»] as typeTab ↹ instructions</td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Type casts</h4> <table><tbody><tr><td></td><th>downcast</th><th>upcast</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td></td><td>operator returntype() { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td>static explicit operator returntype(type operand) { instructions }</td><td>static implicit operator returntype(type operand) { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td></td><td>T opCast(T)() if (is(T == type)) { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>eC</td><td></td><td>property T { get { return «conversion code»; } }</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td rowspan="4" colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C</td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Python</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>Shared Narrowing Operator CType(operand As type) As returntype instructions End Operator </td><td>Shared Widening Operator CType(operand As type) As returntype instructions End Operator</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td></td><td>multi method type«($self:)» is export { instructions }</td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td rowspan="3" colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="member-access">Member access</h2> <p>How to access members of an object x </p> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th colspan="3">object member</th><th rowspan="2">class member</th><th rowspan="2">namespace member</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>method</th><th>field</th><th>property</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td>x->method(«parameters»).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a></td><td>x->field</td><td>—</td><td>x=>field or x=>method(«parameters<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a>»).</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td>x.method(parameters) orptr->method(parameters)</td><td>x.field orptr->field</td><td></td><td>cls::member</td><td>ns::member</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C</td><td>[x method«:parameter «bar:parameter ...»»]</td><td>x->field</td><td>x.property (2.0 only) or[x property]</td><td>[cls method«:parameter «bar:parameter ...»»]</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Smalltalk</td><td>x method«:parameter «bar:parameter ...»»</td><td>—</td><td></td><td>cls method«:parameter «bar:parameter ...»»</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td>x.method(parameters)</td><td></td><td>x.property</td><td>cls.member</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>APL (Dyalog)</td><td>left argument» x.method «right argument(s)»</td><td rowspan="8">x.field</td><td>x.property</td><td rowspan="7">cls.member</td><td rowspan="9">ns.member</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td rowspan="8">x.method(parameters)</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td rowspan="6">x.property</td></tr><tr><td>Python</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td></tr><tr><td>Xojo</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td>[cls]::member</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>—</td><td>cls.member</td></tr><tr><td>eC</td><td>x.method«(parameters)»</td><td>x.field</td><td>x.property</td><td>cls::member</td><td>ns::member</td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td rowspan="2">x.method«(parameters)»</td><td>x.field</td><td></td><td>{cls}.member</td><td rowspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>—</td><td>x.property</td><td>cls.member</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td>x->method(parameters)</td><td>x->field</td><td>x->property</td><td>cls::member</td><td>ns\member</td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td>x->method«(parameters)»</td><td>x->{field}</td><td></td><td>cls->method«(parameters)»</td><td>ns::member</td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>x.method«(parameters)» or x!method«(parameters)»</td><td>x.field or x!field</td><td></td><td>cls.method«(parameters)» or cls!method«(parameters)»</td><td>ns::member</td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td>x#method «parameters»</td><td colspan="2">—</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>JavaScript</td><td>x.method(parameters)x["method"](parameters)</td><td>x.fieldx["field"]</td><td>x.propertyx["property"]</td><td>cls.membercls["member"]</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td>INVOKE x "method" «USING parameters» «RETURNING result» orx::"method"«(«parameters»)»</td><td>—</td><td>property OF x</td><td>INVOKE cls "method" «USING parameters» «RETURNING result» orcls::"method"«(«parameters»)» orproperty OF cls</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Cobra</td><td>x.method«(parameters)»</td><td>x.field</td><td>x.property</td><td>cls.member</td><td>ns.member</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="member-availability">Member availability</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th colspan="2">Has member?</th><th colspan="2">Handler for missing member</th></tr><tr><th></th><th>Method</th><th>Field</th><th>Method</th><th>Field</th></tr><tr><td>APL (Dyalog)</td><td>3=x.⎕NC'method'</td><td>2=x.⎕NC'method'</td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4">—</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C (Cocoa)</td><td>[x respondsToSelector:@selector(method)]</td><td>—</td><td>forwardInvocation:</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Smalltalk</td><td>x respondsTo: selector</td><td>—</td><td>doesNotUnderstand:</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td rowspan="3" colspan="4">(using reflection)</td></tr><tr><td>eC</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td></td><td></td><td colspan="2">opDispatch()</td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td colspan="4">—</td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>hasattr(x, "method") and callable(x.method)</td><td>hasattr(x, "field")</td><td colspan="2">__getattr__()</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td colspan="4">(using reflection)</td></tr><tr><td>Xojo</td><td colspan="4">(using Introspection)</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td colspan="4">(using reflection)</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td colspan="4">(using reflection)</td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>x.respond_to?(:method)</td><td>—</td><td>method_missing()</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td>method_exists(x, "method")</td><td>property_exists(x, "field")</td><td>__call()</td><td>__get() / __set()</td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td>x->can("method")</td><td>exists x->{field}</td><td>AUTOLOAD</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>x.can("method")</td><td>x.field.defined</td><td>AUTOLOAD</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td colspan="4">—</td></tr><tr><td>JavaScript</td><td><a href="/facts/Typeof/mCIKwDuQ">typeof</a> x.method === "function"</td><td>field in x</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td colspan="4">—</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="special-variables">Special variables</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th><a href="/facts/This_(computer_science)/DYW7Snl3">current object</a></th><th><a href="/facts/This_(computer_science)/DYW7Snl3">current object</a>'s <a href="/facts/Parent_class/a7R1xv8n">parent object</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Nullable_type/0jI1MoNq">null reference</a></th><th><a href="/facts/Context_(computing)/oYUN8hQY">Current Context of Execution</a></th></tr><tr><td>Smalltalk</td><td>self</td><td>super</td><td>nil</td><td>thisContext</td></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td>me</td><td>super</td><td>initial</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>APL (Dyalog)</td><td>⎕THIS</td><td>⎕BASE</td><td>⎕NULL</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td>*this</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a></td><td>NULL, nullptr</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td rowspan="4">this</td><td>base<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a></td><td rowspan="3">null</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td rowspan="2">super<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>JavaScript</td><td>super<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> (ECMAScript 6)</td><td>null, undefined<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>eC</td><td>this</td><td></td><td>null</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C</td><td>self</td><td>super<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a></td><td>nil</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td>self</td><td>super<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a></td><td>nil<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>self<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a></td><td>super(current_class_name, self)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a>super() (3.x only)</td><td>None</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>Me</td><td>MyBase</td><td>Nothing</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Xojo</td><td>Me / Self</td><td>Parent</td><td>Nil</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td>Current</td><td>Precursor «{superclass}» «(args)»<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a></td><td>Void</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td>$this</td><td>parent<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a></td><td>null</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td>$self<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a></td><td>$self->SUPER<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a></td><td>undef</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>self</td><td>SUPER</td><td>Nil</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>self</td><td>super«(args)»<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a></td><td>nil</td><td>binding</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td>$this</td><td></td><td>$NULL</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td>self<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a></td><td>super<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a></td><td>—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>this</td><td>base<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a></td><td>null</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td>SELF</td><td>SUPER</td><td>NULL</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cobra</td><td>this</td><td>base</td><td>nil</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="special-methods">Special methods</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">String representation</th><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Object_copy/QbBS3suW">Object copy</a></th><th rowspan="2">Value equality</th><th rowspan="2">Object comparison</th><th rowspan="2">Hash code</th><th rowspan="2">Object ID</th></tr><tr><th>Human-readable</th><th>Source-compatible</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td colspan="7">—</td></tr><tr><td>APL (Dyalog)</td><td>⍕x</td><td>⎕SRC x</td><td>⎕NS x</td><td>x = y</td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>x == y<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a></td><td></td><td></td><td>pointer to object can be converted into an integer ID</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td>x.ToString()</td><td></td><td>x.Clone()</td><td>x.Equals(y)</td><td>x.CompareTo(y)</td><td>x.GetHashCode()</td><td>System.Runtime.CompilerServices.RuntimeHelpers.GetHashCode(x)</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td>x.toString()</td><td></td><td>x.<a href="/facts/Clone_(Java_method)/R8r2sbpG">clone</a>()<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a></td><td>x.equals(y)</td><td>x.compareTo(y)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a></td><td>x.hashCode()</td><td>System.identityHashCode(x)</td></tr><tr><td>JavaScript</td><td>x.toString()</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td>x.toString() or std.conv.to!string(x)</td><td>x.stringof</td><td></td><td>x == y or x.opEquals(y)</td><td>x.opCmp(y)</td><td>x.toHash()</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>eC</td><td>x.OnGetString(tempString, null, null) or PrintString(x)</td><td></td><td>y.OnCopy(x)</td><td></td><td>x.OnCompare(y)</td><td></td><td>object handle can be converted into an integer ID</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C (Cocoa)</td><td>x.description</td><td>x.debugDescription</td><td>[x copy]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a></td><td>[x isEqual:y]</td><td>[x compare:y]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a></td><td>x.hash</td><td>pointer to object can be converted into an integer ID</td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td>x.description<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a></td><td>x.debugDescription<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a></td><td></td><td>x == y<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a></td><td>x < y<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a></td><td>x.hashValue<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a></td><td>reflect(x).objectIdentifier!.uintValue()</td></tr><tr><td>Smalltalk</td><td>x displayString</td><td>x printString</td><td>x copy</td><td>x = y</td><td></td><td>x hash</td><td>x identityHash</td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>str(x)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a></td><td>repr(x)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a></td><td>copy.copy(x)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a></td><td>x == y<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a></td><td>cmp(x, y)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a></td><td>hash(x)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a></td><td>id(x)</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>x.ToString()</td><td></td><td>x.Clone()</td><td>x.Equals(y)</td><td>x.CompareTo(y)</td><td>x.GetHashCode()</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td>x.out</td><td></td><td>x.twin</td><td>x.is_equal(y)</td><td>When x is COMPARABLE, one can simply do x < y</td><td>When x is HASHABLE, one can use x.hash_code</td><td>When x is IDENTIFIED, one can use x.object_id</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td>$x->__toString()</td><td></td><td>clone x<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a></td><td>x == y</td><td></td><td></td><td>spl_object_hash(x)</td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td>"$x"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a></td><td>Data::Dumper->Dump([$x],['x'])<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a></td><td>Storable::dclone($x)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Scalar::Util::refaddr( $x )<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>~x<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a></td><td>x.perl</td><td>x.clone</td><td>x eqv y</td><td>x cmp y</td><td></td><td>x.WHICH</td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>x.to_s</td><td>x.inspect</td><td>x.dup or x.clone</td><td>x == y or x.eql?(y)</td><td>x <=> y</td><td>x.hash</td><td>x.object_id</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td>x.ToString()</td><td></td><td>x.Clone()</td><td>x.Equals(y)</td><td>x.CompareTo(y)</td><td>x.GetHashCode()</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td></td><td></td><td>Oo.copy x</td><td>x = y</td><td></td><td>Hashtbl.hash x</td><td>Oo.id x</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>string x or x.ToString() or sprintf "%O" x</td><td>sprintf "%A" x</td><td>x.Clone()</td><td>x = y or x.Equals(y)</td><td>compare x y or x.CompareTo(y)</td><td>hash x or x.GetHashCode()</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td colspan="7">—</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="type-manipulation">Type manipulation</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th rowspan="2">Get object type</th><th rowspan="2">Is instance of (includes subtypes)</th><th rowspan="2">Upcasting</th><th colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Downcasting/YGVouRuJ">Downcasting</a></th></tr><tr><th>Runtime check</th><th>No check</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td colspan="2">—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a></td><td>=</td><td>?=</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td><a href="/facts/Typeid/z08ojlmN">typeid</a>(x)</td><td><a href="/facts/Dynamic_cast/z08ojlmN">dynamic_cast</a><type *>(&x) != <a href="/facts/Null_pointer/66zwVEfL">nullptr</a></td><td rowspan="8">—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Dynamic_cast/z08ojlmN">dynamic_cast</a><type*>(ptr)</td><td>(type*) ptr or static_cast<type*>(ptr)</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td>x.GetType()</td><td>x is type</td><td>(type) x or x as type</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td>typeid(x)</td><td></td><td>cast(type) x</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Delphi</td><td></td><td>x is type</td><td>x as type</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>eC</td><td>x._class</td><td>eClass_IsDerived(x._class, type)</td><td></td><td>(type) x</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td>x.getClass()</td><td>x instanceof class</td><td>(type) x</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C (Cocoa)</td><td>[x class]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a></td><td>[x isKindOfClass:[class class]]</td><td></td><td>(type*) x</td></tr><tr><td>Swift</td><td>x.dynamicType</td><td>x is type</td><td>x as! type x as? type</td></tr><tr><td>JavaScript</td><td>x.constructor (If not rewritten.)</td><td>x instanceof class</td><td colspan="3">—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td>x.GetType()</td><td><a href="/facts/Typeof/mCIKwDuQ">TypeOf</a> x Is type</td><td>—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a></td><td>CType(x, type) or TryCast(x, type)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Xojo</td><td>Introspection.GetType(x)</td><td>x IsA type</td><td>—</td><td>CType(x, type)</td><td>—</td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td>x.generating_type</td><td>attached {TYPE} x</td><td>attached {TYPE} x as down_x</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>type(x)</td><td>isinstance(x, type)</td><td colspan="3" rowspan="3">—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td>get_class(x)</td><td>x instanceof class</td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td>ref(x)</td><td>x->isa("class")</td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>x.WHAT</td><td>x.isa(class)</td><td>—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a></td><td>type(x) or x.type</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td>x.class</td><td>x.instance_of?(type) or x.kind_of?(type)</td><td colspan="3" rowspan="2">—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Smalltalk</td><td>x class</td><td>x isKindOf: class</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td>x.GetType()</td><td>x -is [type]</td><td>—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a></td><td>[type]x or x -as [type]</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td colspan="2">—<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a></td><td rowspan="2">(x :> type)</td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td>x.GetType()</td><td>x :? type</td><td>(x :?> type)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td colspan="2">—</td><td>x AS type<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a></td><td colspan="2">—</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="namespace-management">Namespace management</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2"></th><th colspan="2">Import namespace</th><th rowspan="2">Import item</th></tr><tr><th>qualified</th><th>unqualified</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>C++</td><td></td><td>using namespace ns;</td><td>using ns::item ;</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td></td><td>using ns;</td><td>using item = ns.item;</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td></td><td>import ns;</td><td>import ns : item;</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td></td><td>import ns.*;</td><td>import ns.item;</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td><td></td><td>Imports ns</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td>import ns</td><td>from ns import *</td><td>from ns import item</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td><td></td><td>use ns;</td><td>use ns\item;</td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td><td rowspan="2">use ns;</td><td></td><td>use ns qw(item);</td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td><td></td><td rowspan="2">open ns</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>F#</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td><td colspan="3">—</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="contracts">Contracts</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th></th><th>Precondition</th><th>Postcondition</th><th>Check</th><th>Invariant</th><th>Loop</th></tr><tr><td>ABAP Objects</td><td colspan="5" rowspan="2">—</td></tr><tr><td>C++</td></tr><tr><td>C#</td><td><i>Spec#</i>: type foo( «parameters» ) requires expression { body }</td><td><i>Spec#</i>: type foo( «parameters» ) ensures expression { body }</td></tr><tr><td>Java</td><td colspan="5" rowspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>Objective-C</td></tr><tr><td>Visual Basic .NET</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td>f in { asserts } body{ instructions }</td><td>f out (result) { asserts } body{ instructions }</td><td>assert(expression)</td><td>invariant() { expression }</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Eiffel</td><td>f require tag: expression do end</td><td>f do ensure tag: expression end</td><td>f do check tag: expression end end</td><td>class X invariant tag: expression end</td><td>from instructions invariant tag: expression until expr loop instructions variant tag: expression end</td></tr><tr><td>Python</td><td colspan="5" rowspan="3">—</td></tr><tr><td>PHP</td></tr><tr><td>Perl</td></tr><tr><td>Raku</td><td>PRE { condition }</td><td>POST { condition }</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ruby</td><td colspan="5" rowspan="5">—</td></tr><tr><td>Windows PowerShell</td></tr><tr><td>OCaml</td></tr><tr><td>F#</td></tr><tr><td>COBOL</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Object-oriented_programming/TxNMEcao">Object-oriented programming</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>parameter = argument may be repeated if the constructor has several parameters <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>SAP reserved to himself the use of destruction <a href="/wiki/SAP_R/3" target="_blank">/wiki/SAP_R/3</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>This syntax creates an object value with automatic storage duration <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>This syntax creates an object with dynamic storage duration and returns a pointer to it <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>OCaml objects can be created directly without going through a class. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>This language uses garbage collection to release unused memory. <a href="/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)" target="_blank">/wiki/Garbage_collection_(computer_science)</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>This language supports multiple inheritance. A class can have more than one parent class <a href="/wiki/Multiple_inheritance" target="_blank">/wiki/Multiple_inheritance</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Not providing a parent class makes the class a root class. In practice, this is almost never done. One should generally use the conventional base class of the framework one is using, which is NSObject for Cocoa and GNUstep, or Object otherwise. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Usually the @interface portion is placed into a header file, and the @interface portion is placed into a separate source code file. <a href="/wiki/Header_file" target="_blank">/wiki/Header_file</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Prefixes to class and protocol names conventionally used as a kind of namespace <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>This language supports multiple inheritance. A class can have more than one parent class <a href="/wiki/Multiple_inheritance" target="_blank">/wiki/Multiple_inheritance</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>In Python interfaces are classes which methods have pass as their bodies <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>This language supports multiple inheritance. A class can have more than one parent class <a href="/wiki/Multiple_inheritance" target="_blank">/wiki/Multiple_inheritance</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>This language supports multiple inheritance. A class can have more than one parent class <a href="/wiki/Multiple_inheritance" target="_blank">/wiki/Multiple_inheritance</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>This language supports multiple inheritance. A class can have more than one parent class <a href="/wiki/Multiple_inheritance" target="_blank">/wiki/Multiple_inheritance</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>This language supports multiple inheritance. A class can have more than one parent class <a href="/wiki/Multiple_inheritance" target="_blank">/wiki/Multiple_inheritance</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>The class is an Object. Just send a message to the superclass (st-80) or the destination namespace (Visualworks). <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>The namespace is an Object.Just send a message to the parent namespace. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>A finalizer is called by the garbage collector when an object is about to be garbage-collected. There is no guarantee on when it will be called or if it will be called at all. <a href="/wiki/Finalizer" target="_blank">/wiki/Finalizer</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>In ABAP, the constructor is to be defined like a method (see comments about method) with the following restrictions: the method name must be "constructor", and only "importing" parameters can be defined <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>An optional comma-separated list of initializers for member objects and parent classes goes here. The syntax for initializing member objects is "member_name(parameters)" This works even for primitive members, in which case one parameter is specified and that value is copied into the member. The syntax for initializing parent classes is "class_name(parameters)". If an initializer is not specified for a member or parent class, then the default constructor is used. <a href="/wiki/Default_constructor" target="_blank">/wiki/Default_constructor</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Any Eiffel procedure can be used as a creation procedure, aka constructors. See Eiffel paragraph at Constructor (computer science). <a href="/wiki/Constructor_(computer_science)#Eiffel" target="_blank">/wiki/Constructor_(computer_science)#Eiffel</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Implementing {DISPOSABLE}.dispose ensures that dispose will be called when object is garbage collected. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>This "initializer" construct is rarely used. Fields in OCaml are usually initialized directly in their declaration. Only when additional imperative operations are needed is "initializer" used. The "parameters to the constructor" in other languages are instead specified as the parameters to the class in OCaml. See the class declaration syntax for more details. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>This syntax is usually used to overload constructors <a href="/wiki/Method_overloading" target="_blank">/wiki/Method_overloading</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>In JavaScript, constructor is an object. <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Constructors can be emulated with a factory method returning a class instance. <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Scope identifier must appear once in the file declaration, all variable declarations after this scope identifier have his scope, until another scope identifier or the end of class declaration is reached <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Scope identifier must appear once in the file declaration, all variable declarations after this scope identifier have his scope, until another scope identifier or the end of class declaration is reached <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Scope identifier must appear once in the file declaration, all variable declarations after this scope identifier have his scope, until another scope identifier or the end of class declaration is reached <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>In ABAP, specific fields or methods are not declared as accessible by outside things. Rather, outside classes are declared as friends to have access to the class's fields or methods. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>In C++, specific fields are not declared as accessible by outside things. Rather, outside functions and classes are declared as friends to have access to the class's fields. See friend function and friend class for more details. <a href="/wiki/Friend_function" target="_blank">/wiki/Friend_function</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Just send a message to the class class addInstVarName: field. class removeInstVarName: field. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Just assign a value to it in a method <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Python doesn't have private fields - all fields are publicly accessible at all times. A community convention exists to prefix implementation details with one underscore, but this is unenforced by the language. <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Just assign a value to it in a method <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Just assign a value to it in a method <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Just assign a value to it in a method <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>All class data is 'private' because the COBOL standard does not specify any way to access it. <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>The declaration and implementation of methods in ABAP are separate. methods statement is to be used inside the class definition. method (without "s") is to be used inside the class implementation. parameter = argument can be repeated if there are several parameters. <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>In ABAP, the return parameter name is explicitly defined in the method signature within the class definition <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>In C++, declaring and implementing methods is usually separate. Methods are declared in the class definition (which is usually included in a header file) using the syntax <a href="/wiki/Header_file" target="_blank">/wiki/Header_file</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Although the body of a method can be included with the declaration inside the class definition, as shown in the table here, this is generally bad practice. Because the class definition must be included with every source file which uses the fields or methods of the class, having code in the class definition causes the method code to be compiled with every source file, increasing the size of the code. Yet, in some circumstances, it is useful to include the body of a method with the declaration. One reason is that the compiler will try to inline methods that are included in the class declaration; so if a very short one-line method occurs, it may make it faster to allow a compiler to inline it, by including the body along with the declaration. Also, if a template class or method occurs, then all the code must be included with the declaration, because only with the code can the template be instantiated. <a href="/wiki/Inline_function" target="_blank">/wiki/Inline_function</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Just assign a function to it in a method <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Just assign a function to it in a method <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Alternative implementation: def bar(): doc = "The bar property." def fget(self): return self._bar def fset(self, value): self._bar = value return locals() bar = property(**bar()) <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>these examples need the Class::Accessor module installed <a href="https://metacpan.org/module/Class::Accessor" target="_blank">https://metacpan.org/module/Class::Accessor</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Although Eiffel does not support overloading of operators, it can define operators <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>PHP does not support operator overloading natively, but support can be added using the "operator" PECL package. <a href="/wiki/Operator_overloading" target="_blank">/wiki/Operator_overloading</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Although Eiffel does not support overloading of operators, it can define operators <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>The class must implement the ArrayAccess interface. <a href="http://www.php.net/manual/en/class.arrayaccess.php" target="_blank">http://www.php.net/manual/en/class.arrayaccess.php</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>The class must overload '@{}' (array dereference) or subclass one of Tie::Array or Tie::StdArray to hook array operations <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Although Eiffel does not support overloading of operators, it can define operators <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>In ABAP, arguments must be passed using this syntax: x->method(«exporting parameter = argument» «importing parameter = argument» «changing parameter = argument» «returning value(parameter)» parameter = argument can be repeated if there are several parameters <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>In ABAP, arguments must be passed using this syntax: x->method(«exporting parameter = argument» «importing parameter = argument» «changing parameter = argument» «returning value(parameter)» parameter = argument can be repeated if there are several parameters <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>C++ doesn't have a "super" keyword, because multiple inheritance is possible, and so it may be ambiguous which base class is referenced. Instead, the BaseClassName::member syntax can be used to access an overridden member in the specified base class. Microsoft Visual C++ provides a non-standard keyword "__super" for this purpose; but this is unsupported in other compilers.[1] <a href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/94dw1w7x.aspx" target="_blank">http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/94dw1w7x.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>The keyword here is not a value, and it can only be used to access a method of the superclass. <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>The keyword here is not a value, and it can only be used to access a method of the superclass. <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>The keyword here is not a value, and it can only be used to access a method of the superclass. <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>But be afraid, they have not the same value. <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>The keyword here is not a value, and it can only be used to access a method of the superclass. <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>The keyword here is not a value, and it can only be used to access a method of the superclass. <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>only for Optional types <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>In this language, instance methods are passed the current object as the first parameter, which is conventionally named "self", but this is not required to be the case. <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>This language supports multiple inheritance. A class can have more than one parent class <a href="/wiki/Multiple_inheritance" target="_blank">/wiki/Multiple_inheritance</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>The keyword here is not a value, and it can only be used to access a method of the superclass. <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:78"><p>"Precursor" in Eiffel is actually a call to the method of the same name in the superclass. So Precursor(args) is equivalent to "super.currentMethodName(args)" in Java. There is no way of calling a method of different name in the superclass. <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:79"><p>The keyword here is not a value, and it can only be used to access a method of the superclass. <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:80"><p>In this language, instance methods are passed the current object as the first parameter, which is conventionally named "self", but this is not required to be the case. <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:81"><p>The keyword here is not a value, and it can only be used to access a method of the superclass. <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>"super" in Ruby, unlike in other languages, is actually a call to the method of the same name in the superclass. So super(args) in Ruby is equivalent to "super.currentMethodName(args)" in Java. There is no way of calling a method of different name in the superclass. <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>In OCaml, an object declaration can optionally start with a parameter which will be associated with the current object. This parameter is conventionally named "self", but this is not required to be the case. It is good practice to put a parameter there so that one can call one's own methods. <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:84"><p>In OCaml, an inheritance declaration ("inherit") can optionally be associated with a value, with the syntax "inherit parent_class «parameters» as super". Here "super" is the name given to the variable associated with this parent object. It can be named differently. <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:85"><p>However, if the ability to have an "optional" value in OCaml is needed, then wrap the value inside an option type, which values are None and Some x, which could be used to represent "null reference" and "non-null reference to an object" as in other languages. <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:86"><p>The keyword here is not a value, and it can only be used to access a method of the superclass. <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:87"><p>assuming that "x" and "y" are the objects (and not pointers). Can be customized by overloading the object's == operator <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:88"><p>Only accessible from within the class, since the clone() method inherited from Object is protected, unless the class overrides the method and makes it public. If using the clone() inherited from Object, the class must implement the Cloneable interface to allow cloning. <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:89"><p>The class should implement the interface Comparable for this method to be standardized. <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:90"><p>Implemented by the object's copyWithZone: method <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:91"><p>compare: is the conventional name for the comparison method in Foundation classes. However, no formal protocol exists <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:92"><p>Only if object conforms to the Printable protocol <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:93"><p>Only if object conforms to the DebugPrintable protocol <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:94"><p>Only if object conforms to the Equatable protocol <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:95"><p>Only if object conforms to the Comparable protocol <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:96"><p>Only if object conforms to the hashValue protocol <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:97"><p>Can be customized by the object's __str__() method <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:98"><p>Can be customized by the object's __repr__() method <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:99"><p>Can be customized by the object's __copy__() method <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:100"><p>Can be customized by the object's __eq__() method <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:101"><p>Only in Python 2.x and before (removed in Python 3.0). Can be customized by the object's __cmp__() method <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:102"><p>Can be customized by the object's __hash__() method. Not all types are hashable (mutable types are usually not hashable) <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:103"><p>Can be customized by the object's __clone() method <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:104"><p>Can be customized by overloading the object's string conversion operator <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:105"><p>This example requires useing Data::Dumper <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:106"><p>This example requires useing Storable <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:107"><p>This example requires useing Scalar::Util <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:108"><p>Can be customized by overloading the object's string conversion operator <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:109"><p>Run-time type information in ABAP can be gathered by using different description Classes like CL_ABAP_CLASSDESCR. <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:110"><p>Upcasting is implicit in this language. A subtype instance can be used where a supertype is needed. <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:111"><p>Only for non-class objects. If x is a class object, [x class] returns only x. The runtime method object_getClass(x) will return the class of x for all objects. <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:112"><p>This language is dynamically typed. Casting between types is unneeded. <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:113"><p>Upcasting is implicit in this language. A subtype instance can be used where a supertype is needed. <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:114"><p>This language is dynamically typed. Casting between types is unneeded. <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:115"><p>Upcasting is implicit in this language. A subtype instance can be used where a supertype is needed. <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:116"><p>This language is dynamically typed. Casting between types is unneeded. <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:117"><p>Upcasting is implicit in this language. A subtype instance can be used where a supertype is needed. <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:118"><p>This language doesn't give run-time type information. It is unneeded because it is statically typed and downcasting is impossible. <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:119"><p>Upcasting is implicit in this language. A subtype instance can be used where a supertype is needed. <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>