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Mugging
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<h2 id="etymology-and-terminology">Etymology and terminology</h2> <p>The word <i>mug</i> had several definitions in the nineteenth century. The noun <i>mugger</i> had been used since the eighteenth century to refer to <a href="/facts/Earthenware/xz481YuA">earthenware</a> sellers before a <a href="/facts/Semantic_shift/aYJrWBot">semantic shift</a> toward referring to thieves. The <i><a href="/facts/John_Russell_Bartlett/wtyDlGyC">Dictionary of Americanisms</a></i> documented the thief-related usage of the word among inmates at <a href="/facts/American_Civil_War_prison_camps/ySuEmH77">Confederate prisons in the American Civil War</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> The modern usage—referring to <a href="/facts/Robbery/lWAlNkRS">robbery</a> against an individual, often by a group—originated in the 1940s among criminals and police.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> The noun <i>mugging</i> and the verb <i>mug</i> entered British English from American English, becoming a <a href="/facts/Buzzword/umj6poF9">buzzword</a> in late 1972 and early 1973.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> </p><p><i>Mugging</i> is a common term for personal robbery,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> though personal robbery also encompasses forms of theft such as <a href="/facts/Carjacking/etrEmKn5">carjacking</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> Other terms for personal robbery include <i>snatch theft</i> and <i>street robbery</i>, as it is an example of a <a href="/facts/Street_crime/vxMyMd5b">street crime</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> The terms <i>mugging</i>, <i>street robbery</i>, and <i>street crime</i> are often interchangeable, though usage varies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="description">Description</h2> <p>Mugging is a form of <a href="/facts/Robbery/lWAlNkRS">robbery</a>. Mugging itself is generally not a criminal offense; perpetrators of the act commit the crime of robbery, though mugging is a more specific concept.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Unlike other forms of robbery, mugging is a <a href="/facts/Criminal_law/XXfgv9as">personal offense</a>. It typically involves less planning and smaller payouts than commercial robbery,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> and it is usually committed by inexperienced criminals who rely on fear.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p><p>Mugging often involves an attack on a victim walking alone at night.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> Perpetrators steal money or valuable <a href="/facts/Personal_property/Cd6YS3U3">personal property</a> such as <a href="/facts/Cell_phone/H3EcqD9h">cell phones</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> Actual or threatened violence is a major aspect of mugging, which often uses weapons such as <a href="/facts/Knives/6NAX66vY">knives</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> The level of violence can vary, with some muggings resulting in injury or death. The level of violence and the emotional response contribute to a victim's level of crisis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> Victims often face loss of property, injury, or fear, and they may gain <a href="/facts/Psychological_trauma/7UMnzzBy">psychological trauma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> The possibility of such outcomes results in a widespread fear of mugging.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Motive_(law)/vcNmKSwf">Motives</a> for mugging include need for money, desire to increase <a href="/facts/Social_status/X5j4NvxM">social status</a>, and the thrill of the act.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> The latter two motives are common among younger people, while the need for money often motivates habitual drug users to commit street robbery.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Though mugging takes more time than other crimes and brings little money, perpetrators are motivated by a feeling of power.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> Compared to commercial robbery, street robbery is a more reliable source of money due to its speed, simplicity, and low punishment rate; this is motivating for people who lack legitimate sources of money.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Muggers are often motivated by <a href="/facts/Peer_pressure/1RotA8NH">peer pressure</a>, which <a href="/facts/Normalization_(sociology)/Q6Scsb9g">normalizes</a> the behavior.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> People involved in <a href="/facts/Street_gang/Wj4omovT">street gangs</a> gain <a href="/facts/Cultural_capital/qYkQKoUo">cultural capital</a> from it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p><p>Street robbery usually occurs in urban areas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> It is often associated with night,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> though it frequently occurs at other times of day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> Muggers usually work within small, familiar areas, such as the surroundings of their homes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> Street robberies occur within a few <a href="/facts/City_block/LQ5LA1S7">city blocks</a> of places that are likely to have cash, like stores, bars, illegal businesses, or <a href="/facts/ATM/oW0eR6mM">ATMs</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> Incidents are often clustered at points within cities such as <a href="/facts/Bus_stop/wseJyaBl">bus stops</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> Many incidents occur in places with activity in the <a href="/facts/Night-time_economy/qla0AanH">night-time economy</a>; such cases frequently involve <a href="/facts/Alcohol_intoxication/Kk9hRcsK">alcohol intoxication</a> or violence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> Street robbers sometimes target other criminals opportunistically; such cases are less commonly reported to police.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p><p>A mugging typically lasts a few minutes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> It begins with the perpetrator <a href="/facts/Risk_assessment/vlG9Uf0h">assessing the risk</a> of conducting the act.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> Muggers select victims whom they perceive as vulnerable or likely to have money.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> They may initiate a <a href="/facts/Confrontation/ahV4RFny">confrontation</a> by feigning a non-threatening encounter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> The confrontation occurs in a short range, enabling personal contact, such as shoving, that may surprise the victim.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> The perpetrator may display weapons or implicitly threaten violence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> They attempt to take control of the victim, which creates an unpredictable situation for both parties based on their perceptions of each other.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Though muggers usually do not desire to induce violence, confrontations often become violent when they lose control or perceive resistance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <h3>Origins</h3> <p>The concept of mugging originated in the United States in the 1940s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Blackout_(wartime)/mxXIz2HQ">Blackouts</a> during <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">World War II</a> enabled people to commit crimes in the dark, inciting the popularity of muggings in cities such as <a href="/facts/Baltimore/ncJvTzBU">Baltimore</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> Mugging narratives were <a href="/facts/Racialized/xuKb9BhU">racialized</a> since the origin of the concept,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> and, in the post-war era, media in New York City associated mugging with <a href="/facts/African_Americans_in_New_York_City/Auf4rf5g">the Black population</a>. Communist politician <a href="/facts/Benjamin_J._Davis_Jr./h418N5rP">Benjamin J. Davis Jr.</a> described such reports as "exaggerated <a href="/facts/Crime/BfoRzbL3">crime wave</a> slander", and the journal <i><a href="/facts/Phylon/GRM7jwqk">Phylon</a></i> wrote that conservative media aimed to "create a <a href="/facts/Negro/xxcDBDqB">Negro</a> crime wave".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> </p> <h3>1970s British phenomenon</h3> <p>The term <i>mugging</i> was first used in British media in the 1960s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> The media frequently reported waves of muggings from 1972 to 1976,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> a time when the concept of <a href="/facts/Fear_of_crime/h4fTjSUT">fear of crime</a> gained recognition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> Prior to this era, the British public had considered mugging to be limited to American cities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> Commentators of the time compared ethnic tensions in British cities to those in America, and the association of mugging with the <a href="/facts/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans/IBAJdqKP">criminal stereotype of African Americans</a> spread to Britain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> Similar crimes in Britain had previously been called "robbery with violence", "assault and robbery", "robbery and grievous bodily harm", or "bag snatching".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> Such crimes had been increasingly reported starting in the mid-1960s,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> and many newspapers reported police statistics saying that London's mugging rate increased 129% between 1968 and 1972.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> During this time, urban residents gained awareness of the risk of victimization, especially in middle-class neighborhoods whose residents had not expected crime.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> </p><p>In the late 1960s and early 1970s, many muggers were <a href="/facts/West_Indian/vwmEAQyq">West Indian</a> youths, largely due to socioeconomic discontent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> Police departments strengthened <a href="/facts/Crime_control/PUu68EGB">crime control</a> measures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> Some, including London's <a href="/facts/Metropolitan_Police/GANdhRWR">Metropolitan Police</a> and <a href="/facts/London_Transport_Police/A49qW0wm">London Transport Police</a>, utilized "anti-mugging" units, which primarily focused on West Indian–majority neighborhoods.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> Police associated the crime with West Indians, despite high rates of mugging in some cities with low Black populations<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> and a 1976 Metropolitan Police report to the <a href="/facts/Home_Affairs_Select_Committee/VTDbg5AB">Home Affairs Select Committee</a> that said crime rates of West Indians were the same as the general population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> Muggings received disproportionate media attention compared to other crimes that occurred in White-majority areas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> Television reports frequently featured elderly women who were victims of mugging,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> and this demographic gained a widespread fear of the crime, though men were more likely to be victims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> </p><p>A mugging case in <a href="/facts/Handsworth,_West_Midlands/UNf9MHVF">Handsworth, West Midlands</a>, on November 5, 1972, resulted in three teenagers being sentenced to twenty years of prison and received widespread newspaper coverage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> A column by commentator John Akass in <i><a href="/facts/The_Sun_(United_Kingdom)/8kowGFRx">The Sun</a></i>, a widely circulated <a href="/facts/Tabloid_journalism/uoEdrrBn">tabloid newspaper</a>, wrote that the case's perpetrator "did not get 20 years for mugging. He got it for attempted murder," and that the punishment was "almost as barbarous as the crime itself".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> The fatal stabbing of an elderly man, soon after the Handsworth case, was the first individual crime in Britain to be reported with the word <i>mugging</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> Some leftist criminologists believed that the widespread attention to mugging was a result of the media rather than circumstances contributing to crime. However, <a href="/facts/Jock_Young/PhrLpFN8">Jock Young</a> said in 1976, "It is unrealistic to suggest that the problem of crime like mugging is merely the problem of mis-categorization and concomitant moral panics."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> In the late 1970s, public opinion largely associated mugging with Black people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> Politician <a href="/facts/Enoch_Powell/rc0TPPt9">Enoch Powell</a> referred to mugging as a "black crime" in 1976.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> A 1979 study found that two types of crime were disproportionately associated with black youths: mugging and <a href="/facts/Sus_law/lvhePQvH">being suspicious</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> </p> <p>The 1978 book <i>Policing the Crisis</i>, cowritten by <a href="/facts/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)/qPhT3wfB">Stuart Hall</a>, labeled the phenomenon as a <a href="/facts/Moral_panic/IkKVIeRY">moral panic</a> and argued that the media ideologically conceptualized mugging.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> The book said that mugging was not defined in law or distinct from existing crimes, but that the concept was influenced by preexisting societal concerns and <a href="/facts/Racism_in_the_United_Kingdom/SlewqAgf">anti-Black sentiment</a>, as well as by the connotations of the word <i>mugging</i> in America.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> It argued that political and media figures used mugging to direct public fears about public disorder toward Black youths,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> that the government used this attitude to secure support,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> and that media coverage of the Handsworth case exemplified the undue attention to the subject.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> The book disagreed with the belief that the <a href="/facts/Crime_rate/j46YIH79">crime rate</a> was increasing; some critics, including Nob Doran and <a href="/facts/P._A._J._Waddington/4qsjl7Ac">P. A. J. Waddington</a>, said that its use of statistics was biased.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> Unlike Hall, Michael Pratt stated that London's rate of mugging was increasing and that the Metropolitan Police's had a legal classification equivalent to mugging.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> Colin Sumner challenged the description of mugging as a moral panic, saying that media statements did not equate to <a href="/facts/Public_opinion/GfnFwKk2">public opinion</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> </p><p>Discussion of mugging in the <a href="/facts/British_Parliament/7bFbPI9g">British Parliament</a> increased through the 1960s and 1970s (alongside that of <a href="/facts/Burglary/6dMK7SHD">burglary</a>) and peaked in the 1980s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> By that time, <a href="/facts/Riot/x3wtz4CM">riots</a>, rather than muggings, were the subject of racialized media coverage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> A survey by the <a href="/facts/Home_Office/qY31Kvhl">Home Office</a>, published in March 1982, recommended <a href="/facts/Community_policing/2tLB0YXD">community policing</a> to resist mugging and criticized excessive media response, but its findings received little attention.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> Public fear of mugging peaked in the 1990s and was most prevalent among people who grew up during the era of the media phenomenon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> </p> <h3>1990s–2020s</h3> <p>Brazilian media in the 1990s reported a phenomenon of mass mugging and <a href="/facts/Organized_crime/m2eEga1z">organized crime</a>, termed <i>arrastão</i> (lit. '<a href="/facts/Seine_fishing/PKSUzb6Y">dragnet</a>').<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> The term was coined for 1992 reports of mass muggings on beaches in the wealthy <a href="/facts/South_Zone_(Rio_de_Janeiro)/n2qNkm2n">southern region of Rio de Janeiro</a>. The only injury of these incidents was caused by a police officer, and only two muggings were reported, but many people believed there was a high rate of unreported muggings. Newspapers associated the <i>arrastão</i> with youths, particularly of the <i>funkeiro</i> subculture, fans of the African-American <a href="/facts/Funk/NVuzVek1">funk</a> music genre.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> According to anthropologist Ben Penglase, this media wave was similar to the racist reports of mugging in 1980s Britain, despite not explicitly mentioning race.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> In Portugal, a twelve-day media wave about mass mugging began after a report by <a href="/facts/Lusa_News_Agency/8Hz9YYu6">Lusa News Agency</a> on June 10, 2005, about crime at <a href="/facts/Carcavelos/HByWRSF8">Carcavelos Beach</a>. Media reports used the word <i>arrastão</i>, though police said there was no evidence of it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> Most national news outlets and many politicians framed it as a mass mugging. Reporters gave more attention to unrelated acts, mostly by racial minorities, to support a mass mugging wave.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> </p><p>In the 2000s, <a href="/facts/Conservatives_in_the_United_States/ye90yMMJ">conservatives in the United States</a> used the thesis, "A liberal is someone who has not been mugged," in support of a <a href="/facts/Law_and_order_(politics)/pjKtwSx7">law and order</a> ideology, though being a victim of crimes such as mugging was not correlated with conservatism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> American media in the late 2000s frequently reported accounts of "payday muggings", which supposed that <a href="/facts/Mexican_Americans/sw5sfgPF">Mexican Americans</a>, who were thought to be likely to be <a href="/facts/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States/BtcLkouj">undocumented</a> and lack resources, were targeted by primarily Black muggers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> </p><p>Rates of personal robbery decreased during the <a href="/facts/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom/P28V4Ioq">COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom</a> as there was less night-time economic activity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="statistics">Statistics</h2> <p>About 2% of crimes recorded in England and Wales in the 2000s and 2010s are personal robberies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> About one-third of personal robberies in the United Kingdom involve weapons, and about 40% of victims are injured.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> Most perpetrators in the United Kingdom are groups of young men, and most victims are men.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> In the country, fear of mugging is more prevalent among people who have been victims of it, as well as people who are women, non-white, lower-income, lower-educated, or unemployed, as of 2019<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mugging&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> </p><p>Mugging is less frequent in Canada than the United States, as of 2005<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mugging&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> In Norway, mugging is rare outside of criminal circles, but incidents are commonly reported in the media.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> </p> <h3>Works cited</h3> <ul><li>Lejeune, Robert (July 1977). 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ISSN 1460-3780. <a href="http://link.springer.com/10.1057/palgrave.cpcs.8150033" target="_blank">http://link.springer.com/10.1057/palgrave.cpcs.8150033</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Sandberg & Petersen 2011, p. 130. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSandbergPetersen2011 (help) <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Harding et al. 2019, p. 880. - Harding, Simon; Deuchar, Ross; Densley, James; McLean, Robert (June 6, 2019). "A Typology of Street Robbery and Gang Organization: Insights from Qualitative Research in Scotland". The British Journal of Criminology. 59 (4): 879–897. doi:10.1093/bjc/azy064. ISSN 0007-0955. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/59/4/879/5245906" target="_blank">https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/59/4/879/5245906</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Lejeune 1977, pp. 132–133. - Lejeune, Robert (July 1977). "The Management of a Mugging". Urban Life. 6 (2). Sage: 123–148. doi:10.1177/089124167700600201. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124167700600201" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124167700600201</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Harding et al. 2019, p. 884. - Harding, Simon; Deuchar, Ross; Densley, James; McLean, Robert (June 6, 2019). "A Typology of Street Robbery and Gang Organization: Insights from Qualitative Research in Scotland". The British Journal of Criminology. 59 (4): 879–897. doi:10.1093/bjc/azy064. ISSN 0007-0955. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/59/4/879/5245906" target="_blank">https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/59/4/879/5245906</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Smith, Frazee & Davison 2000, p. 497. - Smith, William R.; Frazee, Sharon Glave; Davison, Elizabeth L. (May 2000). 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"Go where the money is: modeling street robbers' location choices". Journal of Economic Geography. 13 (1): 119–143. doi:10.1093/jeg/lbs005. ISSN 1468-2702. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjeg%2Flbs005" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjeg%2Flbs005</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Bernasco, Block & Ruiter 2012, pp. 119–120, 123, 135. - Bernasco, Wim; Block, Richard; Ruiter, Stijn (March 9, 2012). "Go where the money is: modeling street robbers' location choices". Journal of Economic Geography. 13 (1): 119–143. doi:10.1093/jeg/lbs005. ISSN 1468-2702. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjeg%2Flbs005" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjeg%2Flbs005</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Hart & Miethe 2014, p. 190; Liu et al. 2020, pp. 1–2. - Hart, Timothy C; Miethe, Terance D (April 2014). 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Crime Prevention and Community Safety. 9 (1): 52–67. doi:10.1057/palgrave.cpcs.8150033. ISSN 1460-3780. <a href="http://link.springer.com/10.1057/palgrave.cpcs.8150033" target="_blank">http://link.springer.com/10.1057/palgrave.cpcs.8150033</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Lejeune 1977, p. 127. - Lejeune, Robert (July 1977). "The Management of a Mugging". Urban Life. 6 (2). Sage: 123–148. doi:10.1177/089124167700600201. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124167700600201" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124167700600201</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Lejeune 1977, p. 127. - Lejeune, Robert (July 1977). "The Management of a Mugging". Urban Life. 6 (2). Sage: 123–148. doi:10.1177/089124167700600201. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124167700600201" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124167700600201</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Lejeune 1977, p. 134. - Lejeune, Robert (July 1977). "The Management of a Mugging". Urban Life. 6 (2). Sage: 123–148. doi:10.1177/089124167700600201. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124167700600201" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124167700600201</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Deakin et al., p. 61 sfnm error: no target: CITEREFDeakinSmithsonSpencerMedina-Ariza (help); Lejeune 1977, p. 136–139; Lejeune & Alex 1973, p. 266; 2007 sfnm error: no target: CITEREF2007 (help). <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Lejeune & Alex 1973, p. 260. - Lejeune, Robert; Alex, Nicholas (October 1973). "On Being Mugged: The Event and its Aftermath". Urban Life and Culture. 2 (3). Sage Publishing: 259–287. doi:10.1177/089124167300200301. ISSN 0049-5662. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/089124167300200301" target="_blank">https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/089124167300200301</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Deakin et al. 2007, p. 62. - Deakin, Jo; Smithson, Hannah; Spencer, Jon; Medina-Ariza, Juanjo (February 2007). "Taxing on the Streets: Understanding the Methods and Process of Street Robbery". Crime Prevention and Community Safety. 9 (1): 52–67. doi:10.1057/palgrave.cpcs.8150033. ISSN 1460-3780. <a href="http://link.springer.com/10.1057/palgrave.cpcs.8150033" target="_blank">http://link.springer.com/10.1057/palgrave.cpcs.8150033</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Lejeune 1977, p. 136–139. - Lejeune, Robert (July 1977). "The Management of a Mugging". Urban Life. 6 (2). 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JSTOR 3087972. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3087972" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/3087972</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Wykes 2007, p. 164. - Wykes, Maggie (August 2007). "Constructing crime: Culture, stalking, celebrity and cyber". Crime, Media, Culture. 3 (2): 158–174. doi:10.1177/1741659007078541. ISSN 1741-6590. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1741659007078541" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1741659007078541</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Jefferson & Clarke 1974, p. 37; Lawson 1972, p. 306. - Jefferson, Tony; Clarke, John (July 1974). "Down These Mean Streets: The Meaning of Mugging" (PDF). The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice. 14 (1): 37–53. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2311.1974.tb00290.x. <a href="http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/2992/1/Jefferson_Clarke_SOP17.pdf" target="_blank">http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/2992/1/Jefferson_Clarke_SOP17.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Loader 2001, p. 45. - Loader, I. (January 1, 2001). "The Power of Legitimate Naming: Part I--Chief Constables as Social Commentators in Post-War England". British Journal of Criminology. 41 (1): 41–55. doi:10.1093/bjc/41.1.41. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbjc%2F41.1.41" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbjc%2F41.1.41</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Gunter 2017, p. 66. - Gunter, Anthony (2017). Race, Gangs and Youth Violence: Policy, Prevention and Policing. Bristol University Press. ISBN 9781447322887. Project MUSE 80097. <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/80097" target="_blank">https://muse.jhu.edu/article/80097</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Lejeune & Alex 1973, pp. 260–264. - Lejeune, Robert; Alex, Nicholas (October 1973). "On Being Mugged: The Event and its Aftermath". Urban Life and Culture. 2 (3). Sage Publishing: 259–287. doi:10.1177/089124167300200301. ISSN 0049-5662. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/089124167300200301" target="_blank">https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/089124167300200301</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Jefferson & Clarke 1974, pp. 37, 48–49. - Jefferson, Tony; Clarke, John (July 1974). "Down These Mean Streets: The Meaning of Mugging" (PDF). The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice. 14 (1): 37–53. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2311.1974.tb00290.x. <a href="http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/2992/1/Jefferson_Clarke_SOP17.pdf" target="_blank">http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/2992/1/Jefferson_Clarke_SOP17.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Kalunta-Crumpton 2000, p. 158. - Kalunta-Crumpton, Anita (June 2000). "Race in Popular and Courtroom Discourse of Violence". International Journal of Discrimination and the Law. 4 (2): 153–172. doi:10.1177/135822910000400204. ISSN 1358-2291. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/135822910000400204" target="_blank">https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/135822910000400204</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Jefferson & Clarke 1974, p. 37. - Jefferson, Tony; Clarke, John (July 1974). "Down These Mean Streets: The Meaning of Mugging" (PDF). The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice. 14 (1): 37–53. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2311.1974.tb00290.x. <a href="http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/2992/1/Jefferson_Clarke_SOP17.pdf" target="_blank">http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/2992/1/Jefferson_Clarke_SOP17.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Brake & Shank 1983, p. 7. - Brake, Mike; Shank, Gregory (1983). "Under Heavy Manners: A Consideration of Racism, Black Youth Culture, and Crime in Britain". Crime and Social Justice (20): 1–15. ISSN 0094-7571. JSTOR 29766205. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29766205" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/29766205</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Gunter 2017, p. 66. - Gunter, Anthony (2017). Race, Gangs and Youth Violence: Policy, Prevention and Policing. Bristol University Press. ISBN 9781447322887. Project MUSE 80097. <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/80097" target="_blank">https://muse.jhu.edu/article/80097</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Kalunta-Crumpton 2000, pp. 159–160. - Kalunta-Crumpton, Anita (June 2000). "Race in Popular and Courtroom Discourse of Violence". International Journal of Discrimination and the Law. 4 (2): 153–172. doi:10.1177/135822910000400204. ISSN 1358-2291. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/135822910000400204" target="_blank">https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/135822910000400204</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Herridge 1983, p. 90. - Herridge, Peter (January–February 1983). "Television, the 'Riots' and Research". Screen. 24 (1): 86–91. doi:10.1093/screen/24.1.86. ISSN 1460-2474. <a href="http://academic.oup.com/screen/article/24/1/86/1602235/Television-the-Riots-and-Research" target="_blank">http://academic.oup.com/screen/article/24/1/86/1602235/Television-the-Riots-and-Research</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Brake & Shank 1983, p. 7. - Brake, Mike; Shank, Gregory (1983). "Under Heavy Manners: A Consideration of Racism, Black Youth Culture, and Crime in Britain". Crime and Social Justice (20): 1–15. ISSN 0094-7571. JSTOR 29766205. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29766205" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/29766205</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>McLaughlin 2008, pp. 147, 149. - McLaughlin, Eugene (April 2008). "Hitting the panic button: policing/'mugging'/media/crisis". Crime, Media, Culture. 4 (1): 145–154. doi:10.1177/1741659007087280. ISSN 1741-6590. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1741659007087280" target="_blank">https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1741659007087280</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>McLaughlin 2008, pp. 150–151. - McLaughlin, Eugene (April 2008). "Hitting the panic button: policing/'mugging'/media/crisis". Crime, Media, Culture. 4 (1): 145–154. doi:10.1177/1741659007087280. ISSN 1741-6590. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1741659007087280" target="_blank">https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1741659007087280</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Jefferson 2021, p. 40. - Jefferson, Tony (July 1, 2021). "Conjunctural Analysis Part Two: The Case of Policing the Crisis". Stuart Hall, Conjunctural Analysis and Cultural Criminology. Palgrave MacMillan. pp. 39–54. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-74731-2_3. 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ISBN 9782811106188. <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>Kalunta-Crumpton 2000, p. 158. - Kalunta-Crumpton, Anita (June 2000). "Race in Popular and Courtroom Discourse of Violence". International Journal of Discrimination and the Law. 4 (2): 153–172. doi:10.1177/135822910000400204. ISSN 1358-2291. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/135822910000400204" target="_blank">https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/135822910000400204</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Pitts 2020, p. 148. - Pitts, John (April 2020). "Black Young People and Gang Involvement in London". Youth Justice. 20 (1–2): 146–158. doi:10.1177/1473225420912331. ISSN 1473-2254. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1473225420912331" target="_blank">https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1473225420912331</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Doran 2008, pp. 192, 206. - Doran, Nob (February 2008). "Decoding 'Encoding': Moral Panics, Media Practices and Marxist Presupposition". Theoretical Criminology. 12 (2). Sage Publishing: 191–221. doi:10.1177/1362480608089240. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362480608089240" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362480608089240</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Doran 2008, p. 203–204; Waddington 1986, pp. 246–247. - Doran, Nob (February 2008). "Decoding 'Encoding': Moral Panics, Media Practices and Marxist Presupposition". Theoretical Criminology. 12 (2). Sage Publishing: 191–221. doi:10.1177/1362480608089240. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362480608089240" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362480608089240</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Gray et al. 2019, p. 439. - Gray, Emily; Grasso, Maria; Farrall, Stephen; Jennings, Will; Hay, Colin (February 15, 2019). "Political Socialization, Worry about Crime and Antisocial Behaviour: An Analysis of Age, Period and Cohort Effects". The British Journal of Criminology. 59 (2): 435–460. doi:10.1093/bjc/azy024. ISSN 0007-0955. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/59/2/435/5067283" target="_blank">https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/59/2/435/5067283</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Brake & Shank 1983, p. 6. - Brake, Mike; Shank, Gregory (1983). "Under Heavy Manners: A Consideration of Racism, Black Youth Culture, and Crime in Britain". Crime and Social Justice (20): 1–15. ISSN 0094-7571. JSTOR 29766205. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29766205" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/29766205</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>McLaughlin 2008, p. 147. - McLaughlin, Eugene (April 2008). "Hitting the panic button: policing/'mugging'/media/crisis". Crime, Media, Culture. 4 (1): 145–154. doi:10.1177/1741659007087280. ISSN 1741-6590. <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1741659007087280" target="_blank">https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1741659007087280</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Doran 2008, p. 206; Waddington 1986, pp. 248–250. - Doran, Nob (February 2008). "Decoding 'Encoding': Moral Panics, Media Practices and Marxist Presupposition". Theoretical Criminology. 12 (2). Sage Publishing: 191–221. doi:10.1177/1362480608089240. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362480608089240" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362480608089240</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Waddington 1986, pp. 253–254. - Waddington, P. A. J. (June 1986). "Mugging as a Moral Panic: A Question of Proportion". The British Journal of Sociology. 37 (2): 245–259. doi:10.2307/590356. JSTOR 590356. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F590356" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F590356</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>Hunt 1997, p. 645. - Hunt, Arnold (December 1997). "'Moral Panic' and Moral Language in the Media". The British Journal of Sociology. 48 (4): 629–648. doi:10.2307/591600. 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Project MUSE 80097. <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/80097" target="_blank">https://muse.jhu.edu/article/80097</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:80"><p>Herridge 1983, p. 90. - Herridge, Peter (January–February 1983). "Television, the 'Riots' and Research". Screen. 24 (1): 86–91. doi:10.1093/screen/24.1.86. ISSN 1460-2474. <a href="http://academic.oup.com/screen/article/24/1/86/1602235/Television-the-Riots-and-Research" target="_blank">http://academic.oup.com/screen/article/24/1/86/1602235/Television-the-Riots-and-Research</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:81"><p>Gray et al. 2019, pp. 454–455. - Gray, Emily; Grasso, Maria; Farrall, Stephen; Jennings, Will; Hay, Colin (February 15, 2019). "Political Socialization, Worry about Crime and Antisocial Behaviour: An Analysis of Age, Period and Cohort Effects". The British Journal of Criminology. 59 (2): 435–460. doi:10.1093/bjc/azy024. ISSN 0007-0955. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/59/2/435/5067283" target="_blank">https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article/59/2/435/5067283</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>Penglase 2007, p. 306; Pereira Rosa 2018, p. 188. - Penglase, Ben (December 2007). "Barbarians on the beach: Media narratives of violence in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil". Crime, Media, Culture. 3 (3): 305–325. doi:10.1177/1741659007082468. ISSN 1741-6590. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1741659007082468" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1741659007082468</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>Penglase 2007, pp. 307–308. - Penglase, Ben (December 2007). "Barbarians on the beach: Media narratives of violence in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil". Crime, Media, Culture. 3 (3): 305–325. doi:10.1177/1741659007082468. 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