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Rhenium
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<h2 id="history">History</h2> <p class="note">"Nipponium" redirects here. For element 113, see <a href="/facts/Nihonium/sb09p5dv">nihonium</a>.</p> <p>In 1908, <a href="/facts/Japan/U5mz0SRT">Japanese</a> chemist <a href="/facts/Masataka_Ogawa/Xhe9Cg6g">Masataka Ogawa</a> announced that he had discovered the 43rd element and named it <i>nipponium</i> (Np) after <a href="/facts/Japan/U5mz0SRT">Japan</a> (<i>Nippon</i> in Japanese). In fact, he had found element 75 (rhenium) instead of element 43: both elements are in the same group of the periodic table.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> Ogawa's work was often incorrectly cited, because some of his key results were published only in Japanese; it is likely that his insistence on searching for element 43 prevented him from considering that he might have found element 75 instead. Just before Ogawa's death in 1930, Kenjiro Kimura analysed Ogawa's sample by <a href="/facts/X-ray_spectroscopy/spWfPwYK">X-ray spectroscopy</a> at the <a href="/facts/Imperial_University_of_Tokyo/Td0xnQDF">Imperial University of Tokyo</a>, and said to a friend that "it was beautiful rhenium indeed". He did not reveal this publicly, because under the Japanese university culture before <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">World War II</a> it was frowned upon to point out the mistakes of one's seniors, but the evidence became known to some Japanese news media regardless. As time passed with no repetitions of the experiments or new work on nipponium, Ogawa's claim faded away.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> The symbol Np was later used for the element <a href="/facts/Neptunium/pwp7Yvds">neptunium</a>, and the name "nihonium", also <a href="/facts/Names_of_Japan/acxwmYof">named after Japan</a>, along with symbol Nh, was later used for <a href="/facts/Nihonium/sb09p5dv">element 113</a>. Element 113 was also discovered by a team of Japanese scientists and was named in respectful homage to Ogawa's work.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> Today, Ogawa's claim is widely accepted as having been the discovery of element 75 in hindsight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p><p>Rhenium (<a href="/facts/Latin_language/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>: <i>Rhenus</i> meaning: "<a href="/facts/Rhine/MgJ88oaz">Rhine</a>")<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> received its current name when it was rediscovered by <a href="/facts/Walter_Noddack/a75NHsrF">Walter Noddack</a>, <a href="/facts/Ida_Tacke/4Uve513s">Ida Noddack</a>, and <a href="/facts/Otto_Berg_(scientist)/XzGplhSn">Otto Berg</a> in <a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a>. In 1925 they reported that they had detected the element in platinum ore and in the mineral <a href="/facts/Columbite/TLtIHgpR">columbite</a>. They also found rhenium in <a href="/facts/Gadolinite/kahQI57c">gadolinite</a> and <a href="/facts/Molybdenite/jatlEkxR">molybdenite</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> In 1928 they were able to extract 1 g of the element by processing 660 kg of molybdenite.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> It was estimated in 1968 that 75% of the rhenium metal in the <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a> was used for research and the development of <a href="/facts/Refractory_metal/WtGXfsVQ">refractory metal</a> alloys. It took several years from that point before the superalloys became widely used.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>The original mischaracterization by Ogawa in 1908 and final work in 1925 makes rhenium perhaps the last stable element to be understood. <a href="/facts/Hafnium/rBNnlxDS">Hafnium</a> was discovered in 1923<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> and all other new elements discovered since then, such as <a href="/facts/Francium/P3Rz4gDP">francium</a>, are radioactive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="characteristics">Characteristics</h2> <p>Rhenium is a silvery-white metal with one of the highest <a href="/facts/Melting_point/MY0w0h0k">melting points</a> of all elements, exceeded by only <a href="/facts/Tungsten/WYwbNDYX">tungsten</a>. (At standard pressure <a href="/facts/Carbon/ukrgQexo">carbon</a> sublimes rather than melts, though its sublimation point is comparable to the melting points of tungsten and rhenium.) It also has one of the highest <a href="/facts/Boiling_points/E2BK9QoS">boiling points</a> of all elements, and the highest among stable elements. It is also one of the densest, exceeded only by <a href="/facts/Platinum/qJC6lQf7">platinum</a>, <a href="/facts/Iridium/TFQutoj1">iridium</a> and <a href="/facts/Osmium/1TjXD69n">osmium</a>. Rhenium has a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure. </p><p>Its usual commercial form is a powder, but this element can be consolidated by pressing and <a href="/facts/Sintering/Y4eGLzFf">sintering</a> in a vacuum or <a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">hydrogen</a> atmosphere. This procedure yields a compact solid having a density above 90% of the density of the metal. When <a href="/facts/Annealing_(metallurgy)/2AfoCE4X">annealed</a> this metal is very ductile and can be bent, coiled, or rolled.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Rhenium-molybdenum <a href="/facts/Alloy/I7w7WQWR">alloys</a> are <a href="/facts/Superconductivity/pqQAlSzJ">superconductive</a> at 10 <a href="/facts/Kelvin/E3trzC4C">K</a>; tungsten-rhenium alloys are also superconductive<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> around 4–8 K, depending on the alloy. Rhenium metal superconducts at 1.697±0.006 K.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>In bulk form and at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, the element resists alkalis, <a href="/facts/Sulfuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">sulfuric acid</a>, <a href="/facts/Hydrochloric_acid/HqItJlUT">hydrochloric acid</a>, <a href="/facts/Nitric_acid/UDbwGp6s">nitric acid</a>, and <a href="/facts/Aqua_regia/AHr1mobH">aqua regia</a>. It will however, react with nitric acid upon heating.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> <h3>Isotopes</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Isotopes_of_rhenium/UmIoHfcT">Isotopes of rhenium</a></p> <p>Rhenium has one <a href="/facts/Stable_nuclide/vC0VVvqN">stable</a> isotope, rhenium-185, which nevertheless occurs in minority abundance, a situation found only in two other elements (<a href="/facts/Indium/zRq3stVb">indium</a> and <a href="/facts/Tellurium/v7QvfIvS">tellurium</a>). Naturally occurring rhenium is only 37.4% 185Re, and 62.6% 187Re, which is <a href="/facts/Radionuclide/5WpCfbdq">unstable</a> but has a very long <a href="/facts/Half-life/kGVH8BAB">half-life</a> (~1010 years). A kilogram of natural rhenium emits 1.07 <a href="/facts/Becquerel/4C3yrsqp">MBq</a> of radiation due to the presence of this isotope. This lifetime can be greatly affected by the charge state of the rhenium atom.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Beta_decay/vxTBlckp">beta decay</a> of 187Re is used for <a href="/facts/Rhenium%25E2%2580%2593osmium_dating/Eg3kRYmI">rhenium–osmium dating</a> of ores. The available energy for this beta decay (2.6 <a href="/facts/KeV/YMT1fqX9">keV</a>) is the second lowest known among all <a href="/facts/Radionuclide/5WpCfbdq">radionuclides</a>, only behind the decay from 115In to excited 115Sn* (0.147 keV).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> The isotope rhenium-186m is notable as being one of the longest lived <a href="/facts/Metastable_isotope/L8DHcqnk">metastable isotopes</a> with a half-life of around 200,000 years. There are 33 other unstable isotopes that have been recognized, ranging from 160Re to 194Re, the longest-lived of which is 183Re with a half-life of 70 days.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h3>Compounds</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Rhenium_compounds/KhbsmgJ6">Rhenium compounds</a></p> <p>Rhenium compounds are known for all the <a href="/facts/Oxidation_states/W53W6s6V">oxidation states</a> between −3 and +7 except −2. The oxidation states +7, +4, and +3 are the most common.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> Rhenium is most available commercially as salts of <a href="/facts/Perrhenate/uKvDsaoY">perrhenate</a>, including <a href="/facts/Sodium_perrhenate/b9VjFFJt">sodium</a> and <a href="/facts/Ammonium_perrhenate/cEQt1qpw">ammonium perrhenates</a>. These are white, water-soluble compounds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> Tetrathioperrhenate anion [ReS4]− is possible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p> <h4>Halides and oxyhalides</h4> <p>The most common rhenium chlorides are ReCl6, <a href="/facts/Rhenium_pentachloride/K989aTxt">ReCl5</a>, ReCl4, and <a href="/facts/Rhenium_trichloride/8VW5YuPy">ReCl3</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> The structures of these compounds often feature extensive Re-Re bonding, which is characteristic of this metal in oxidation states lower than VII. Salts of [Re2Cl8]2− feature a <a href="/facts/Quadruple_bond/hxpcR3o2">quadruple</a> metal-metal bond. Although the highest rhenium chloride features Re(VI), fluorine gives the d0 Re(VII) derivative <a href="/facts/Rhenium_heptafluoride/wt8yPPf1">rhenium heptafluoride</a>. Bromides and iodides of rhenium are also well known, including rhenium pentabromide and <a href="/facts/Rhenium_tetraiodide/Kp2QVJ3g">rhenium tetraiodide</a>. </p><p>Like tungsten and molybdenum, with which it shares chemical similarities, rhenium forms a variety of <a href="/facts/Oxohalide/vAppA4lU">oxyhalides</a>. The oxychlorides are most common, and include ReOCl4, ReOCl3. </p> <h4>Oxides and sulfides</h4> <p>The most common oxide is the volatile yellow <a href="/facts/Rhenium(VII)_oxide/QBUcnAeD">Re2O7</a>. The red <a href="/facts/ReO3/tdPWUM81">rhenium trioxide</a> ReO3 adopts a <a href="/facts/Perovskite/yM9ucFJ2">perovskite</a>-like structure. Other oxides include Re2O5, <a href="/facts/Rhenium(IV)_oxide/EeLSEHuu">ReO2</a>, and Re2O3.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Sulfide/d8YMjLeu">sulfides</a> are <a href="/facts/Rhenium_disulfide/EY58myIM">ReS2</a> and <a href="/facts/Rhenium(VII)_sulfide/tnvf5pCP">Re2S7</a>. Perrhenate salts can be converted to tetrathioperrhenate by the action of <a href="/facts/Ammonium_hydrosulfide/gCM40gc2">ammonium hydrosulfide</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p> <h4>Other compounds</h4> <p><a href="/facts/Rhenium_diboride/tsFGbcft">Rhenium diboride</a> (ReB2) is a hard compound having a hardness similar to that of <a href="/facts/Tungsten_carbide/2w0zcaWJ">tungsten carbide</a>, <a href="/facts/Silicon_carbide/kQLVAYbr">silicon carbide</a>, <a href="/facts/Titanium_diboride/2pXEpx3v">titanium diboride</a> or <a href="/facts/Zirconium_diboride/PRQSefK0">zirconium diboride</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p> <h4>Organorhenium compounds</h4> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Organorhenium_chemistry/KLowFPuD">Organorhenium chemistry</a></p> <p><a href="/facts/Dirhenium_decacarbonyl/65J7DvAv">Dirhenium decacarbonyl</a> is the most common entry to organorhenium chemistry. Its reduction with sodium <a href="/facts/Amalgam_(chemistry)/5dRXJyt3">amalgam</a> gives Na[Re(CO)5] with rhenium in the formal oxidation state −1.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> Dirhenium decacarbonyl can be oxidised with <a href="/facts/Bromine/oLfj3C7D">bromine</a> to <a href="/facts/Bromopentacarbonylrhenium(I)/NsNzY2uj">bromopentacarbonylrhenium(I)</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p> Re2(CO)10 + Br2 → 2 Re(CO)5Br <p>Reduction of this pentacarbonyl with <a href="/facts/Zinc/80b1qgk3">zinc</a> and <a href="/facts/Acetic_acid/uyBKA2Pd">acetic acid</a> gives <a href="/facts/Pentacarbonylhydridorhenium/IPt1GquY">pentacarbonylhydridorhenium</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p> Re(CO)5Br + Zn + HOAc → Re(CO)5H + ZnBr(OAc) <p><a href="/facts/Methylrhenium_trioxide/mphJb8Rf">Methylrhenium trioxide</a> ("MTO"), CH3ReO3 is a volatile, colourless solid that has been used as a <a href="/facts/Catalyst/LPBS7TQC">catalyst</a> in some laboratory experiments. It can be prepared by many routes, a typical method is the reaction of Re2O7 and <a href="/facts/Tetramethyltin/NcUW8FHb">tetramethyltin</a>: </p> Re2O7 + (CH3)4Sn → CH3ReO3 + (CH3)3SnOReO3 <p>Analogous alkyl and aryl derivatives are known. MTO catalyses for the oxidations with <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_peroxide/vju6HBIc">hydrogen peroxide</a>. Terminal <a href="/facts/Alkyne/VHI4N5Wo">alkynes</a> yield the corresponding acid or ester, internal alkynes yield diketones, and <a href="/facts/Alkene/RtYcS6kU">alkenes</a> give epoxides. MTO also catalyses the conversion of <a href="/facts/Aldehyde/xSIRkW03">aldehydes</a> and <a href="/facts/Diazoalkane/qNcCkYb8">diazoalkanes</a> into an alkene.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p> <h4>Nonahydridorhenate</h4> <p>A distinctive derivative of rhenium is <a href="/facts/Potassium_nonahydridorhenate/txc43N4W">nonahydridorhenate</a>, originally thought to be the <i>rhenide</i> anion, Re−, but actually containing the ReH2−9 anion in which the oxidation state of rhenium is +7. </p> <h3>Occurrence</h3> <p>Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in <a href="/facts/Earth%2527s_crust/VSy2u31r">Earth's crust</a> with an average concentration of 1 ppb;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> other sources quote the number of 0.5 ppb making it the 77th most abundant element in Earth's crust.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> Rhenium is probably not found free in nature (its possible natural occurrence is uncertain), but occurs in amounts up to 0.2%<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> in the mineral <a href="/facts/Molybdenite/jatlEkxR">molybdenite</a> (which is primarily <a href="/facts/Molybdenum_disulfide/4TRft6Ua">molybdenum disulfide</a>), the major commercial source, although single molybdenite samples with up to 1.88% have been found.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Chile/uEyTfEcx">Chile</a> has the world's largest rhenium reserves, part of the copper ore deposits, and was the leading producer as of 2005.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> It was only recently (in 1994) that the first rhenium <a href="/facts/Mineral/LkUFbNmv">mineral</a> was found and described, a rhenium <a href="/facts/Sulfide_mineral/f8rxJpCW">sulfide mineral</a> (ReS2) condensing from a <a href="/facts/Fumarole/BX3XEkj5">fumarole</a> on <a href="/facts/Kudriavy/KtTfDGdz">Kudriavy</a> volcano, <a href="/facts/Iturup/0E6zqAK1">Iturup</a> island, in the <a href="/facts/Kuril_Islands/HBRsFdgN">Kuril Islands</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> Kudriavy discharges up to 20–60 kg rhenium per year mostly in the form of rhenium disulfide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> Named <a href="/facts/Rheniite/Ad6d6Wu1">rheniite</a>, this rare mineral commands high prices among collectors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="production">Production</h2> <p>Approximately 80% of rhenium is extracted from <a href="/facts/Porphyry_(geology)/7K4IzbvF">porphyry</a> molybdenum deposits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> Some ores contain 0.001% to 0.2% rhenium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> Roasting the ore volatilizes rhenium oxides.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Rhenium(VII)_oxide/QBUcnAeD">Rhenium(VII) oxide</a> and <a href="/facts/Perrhenic_acid/Qr3xmq99">perrhenic acid</a> readily dissolve in water; they are leached from flue dusts and gasses and extracted by precipitating with <a href="/facts/Potassium_chloride/RgT2MdPa">potassium</a> or <a href="/facts/Ammonium_chloride/SfXdntlv">ammonium chloride</a> as the <a href="/facts/Perrhenate/uKvDsaoY">perrhenate</a> salts, and purified by <a href="/facts/Recrystallization_(chemistry)/4jYdB7YM">recrystallization</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> Total world production is between 40 and 50 tons/year; the main producers are in Chile, the United States, Peru, and Poland.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> Recycling of used Pt-Re catalyst and special alloys allow the recovery of another 10 tons per year. Prices for the metal rose rapidly in early 2008, from $1000–$2000 per <a href="/facts/Kilogram/lU2zbPk8">kg</a> in 2003–2006 to over $10,000 in February 2008.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> The metal form is prepared by reducing <a href="/facts/Ammonium_perrhenate/cEQt1qpw">ammonium perrhenate</a> with <a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">hydrogen</a> at high temperatures:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> </p> 2 NH4ReO4 + 7 H2 → 2 Re + 8 H2O + 2 NH3 <p>There are technologies for the associated extraction of rhenium from productive solutions of underground leaching of uranium ores.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="applications">Applications</h2> <p>Rhenium is added to high-temperature superalloys that are used to make <a href="/facts/Jet_engine/CJjFpeqt">jet engine</a> parts,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> using 70% of the worldwide rhenium production.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> Another major application is in platinum–rhenium <a href="/facts/Catalyst/LPBS7TQC">catalysts</a>, which are primarily used in making <a href="/facts/Lead/EYljasJN">lead</a>-free, high-octane <a href="/facts/Gasoline/lcnxq5BS">gasoline</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> </p> <h3>Alloys</h3> <p>The nickel-based <a href="/facts/Superalloy/UwshApNV">superalloys</a> have improved <a href="/facts/Creep_(deformation)/6GtcMsBt">creep strength</a> with the addition of rhenium. The alloys normally contain 3% or 6% of rhenium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> Second-generation alloys contain 3%; these alloys were used in the engines for the <a href="/facts/Pratt_%2526_Whitney_F100/c8B0aHYw">F-15 and F-16</a>, whereas the newer single-crystal third-generation alloys contain 6% of rhenium; they are used in the <a href="/facts/Pratt_%2526_Whitney_F119/qEV6MLwL">F-22</a> and <a href="/facts/Pratt_%2526_Whitney_F135/mpxRw6z9">F-35</a> engines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> Rhenium is also used in the superalloys, such as CMSX-4 (2nd gen) and CMSX-10 (3rd gen) that are used in industrial <a href="/facts/Gas_turbine/JJJNwXrG">gas turbine</a> engines like the GE 7FA. Rhenium can cause <a href="/facts/Superalloy/UwshApNV">superalloys</a> to become microstructurally unstable, forming undesirable topologically close packed (TCP) <a href="/facts/Phase_(matter)/NkHXDdN3">phases</a>. In 4th- and 5th-generation <a href="/facts/Superalloy/UwshApNV">superalloys</a>, <a href="/facts/Ruthenium/uzCm4ufn">ruthenium</a> is used to avoid this effect. Among others the new <a href="/facts/Superalloy/UwshApNV">superalloys</a> are EPM-102 (with 3% Ru) and TMS-162 (with 6% Ru),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> as well as TMS-138<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> and TMS-174.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> </p> <p>For 2006, the consumption is given as 28% for <a href="/facts/General_Electric/bBm5CzVY">General Electric</a>, 28% <a href="/facts/Rolls-Royce_plc/rQ7B5Tql">Rolls-Royce plc</a> and 12% <a href="/facts/Pratt_%2526_Whitney/DI4FhYep">Pratt & Whitney</a>, all for superalloys, whereas the use for catalysts only accounts for 14% and the remaining applications use 18%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> In 2006, 77% of rhenium consumption in the United States was in alloys.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> The rising demand for military jet engines and the constant supply made it necessary to develop superalloys with a lower rhenium content. For example, the newer <a href="/facts/CFM_International_CFM56/XjnMkh66">CFM International CFM56</a> high-pressure turbine (HPT) blades will use Rene N515 with a rhenium content of 1.5% instead of Rene N5 with 3%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> </p><p>Rhenium improves the properties of <a href="/facts/Tungsten/WYwbNDYX">tungsten</a>. Tungsten-rhenium alloys are more ductile at low temperature, allowing them to be more easily machined. The high-temperature stability is also improved. The effect increases with the rhenium concentration, and therefore tungsten alloys are produced with up to 27% of Re, which is the solubility limit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> Tungsten-rhenium wire was originally created in efforts to develop a wire that was more ductile after recrystallization. This allows the wire to meet specific performance objectives, including superior vibration resistance, improved ductility, and higher resistivity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> One application for the tungsten-rhenium alloys is <a href="/facts/X-ray/wseP79cN">X-ray</a> sources. The high melting point of both elements, together with their high atomic mass, makes them stable against the prolonged electron impact.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> Rhenium tungsten alloys are also applied as <a href="/facts/Thermocouple/FW9cYU5D">thermocouples</a> to measure temperatures up to 2200 °<a href="/facts/Celsius/okAEu1CA">C</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> </p><p>The high temperature stability, low vapor pressure, good <a href="/facts/Wear/2PxRQ1Ke">wear resistance</a> and ability to withstand arc corrosion of rhenium are useful in self-cleaning <a href="/facts/Switch/vqbNDgYm">electrical contacts</a>. In particular, the discharge that occurs during electrical switching oxidizes the contacts. However, rhenium oxide Re2O7 is volatile (sublimes at ~360 °C) and therefore is removed during the discharge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> </p><p>Rhenium has a high melting point and a low vapor pressure similar to <a href="/facts/Tantalum/VwaxMm33">tantalum</a> and tungsten. Therefore, rhenium filaments exhibit a higher stability if the filament is operated not in vacuum, but in oxygen-containing atmosphere.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> Those filaments are widely used in <a href="/facts/Mass_spectrometer/RH5WBHJ2">mass spectrometers</a>, <a href="/facts/Ion_gauge/fJrvoTDU">ion gauges</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Photoflash/bfegk3Xy">photoflash</a> lamps in <a href="/facts/Photography/ezLPT43M">photography</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> </p> <h3>Catalysts</h3> <p>Rhenium in the form of rhenium-platinum alloy is used as catalyst for <a href="/facts/Catalytic_reforming/2ybErEUI">catalytic reforming</a>, which is a chemical process to convert petroleum refinery <a href="/facts/Petroleum_naphtha/36acq3lI">naphthas</a> with low <a href="/facts/Octane_rating/LqkAlYbq">octane ratings</a> into high-octane liquid products. Worldwide, 30% of catalysts used for this process contain rhenium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Olefin_metathesis/6G4u1ray">olefin metathesis</a> is the other reaction for which rhenium is used as catalyst. Normally Re2O7 on <a href="/facts/Alumina/wXM9P6pI">alumina</a> is used for this process.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> Rhenium catalysts are very resistant to <a href="/facts/Catalyst_poisoning/mU3dwzez">chemical poisoning</a> from nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus, and so are used in certain kinds of hydrogenation reactions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> </p> <h3>Other uses</h3> <p>The isotopes 186Re and 188Re are radioactive and are used for treatment of <a href="/facts/Liver_cancer/a7N4vD4L">liver cancer</a>. They both have similar <a href="/facts/Penetration_depth/QW4glQs0">penetration depth</a> in tissue (5 mm for 186Re and 11 mm for 188Re), but 186Re has the advantage of a longer half life (90 hours vs. 17 hours).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> </p><p>188Re is also being used experimentally in a novel treatment of pancreatic cancer where it is delivered by means of the bacterium <i>Listeria monocytogenes</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> The 188Re isotope is also used for the rhenium-SCT (<a href="/facts/Skin_cancer/r9BWEX7W">skin cancer</a> therapy). The treatment uses the isotope's properties as a <a href="/facts/Beta_decay/vxTBlckp">beta emitter</a> for <a href="/facts/Brachytherapy/YCxeYI8L">brachytherapy</a> in the treatment of <a href="/facts/Basal-cell_carcinoma/NLHsYND7">basal cell carcinoma</a> and <a href="/facts/Squamous_cell_carcinoma_of_the_head_and_neck/v8T8bNs7">squamous cell carcinoma</a> of the skin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> </p><p>Related by <a href="/facts/Periodic_trends/dI0mkSju">periodic trends</a>, rhenium has a similar chemistry to that of <a href="/facts/Technetium/MGYWNI5d">technetium</a>; work done to label rhenium onto target compounds can often be translated to technetium. This is useful for radiopharmacy, where it is difficult to work with technetium – especially the <a href="/facts/Technetium-99m/HgIqtvrv">technetium-99m</a> isotope used in medicine – due to its expense and short half-life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> </p><p>Rhenium is used in manufacturing high precision equipment like <a href="/facts/Gyroscopes/UjXGsfMq">gyroscopes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> Its high <a href="/facts/Density/92p6hh9I">density</a>, mechanical stability and <a href="/facts/Corrosion/lIC7H4we">corrosion</a> resistance characteristics<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> ensure the equipment's <a href="/facts/Durability/HPpuqYd2">durability</a> and precise performance in demanding conditions. Rhenium cathodes are also used for their stability and precision in spectral analysis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> </p><p>Rhenium is used in aerospace, nuclear, and electronic industries, and it shows potential for application in medical instrumentation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> In the rocket industry, it is used in engine components for booster rockets.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> Additionally, rhenium was employed in the <a href="/facts/SP-100/saLRQCDC">SP-100</a> program due to its low-temperature ductility.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> </p><p>Rhenium's stiffness and high melting point makes it a common gasket material for <a href="/facts/High_pressure_experiments/MxJPh33j">high pressure experiments</a> in <a href="/facts/Diamond_anvil_cell/vpsaLRrr">diamond anvil cells</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="precautions">Precautions</h2> <p>Very little is known about the toxicity of rhenium and its compounds because they are used in very small amounts. Soluble salts, such as the rhenium halides or perrhenates, could be hazardous due to elements other than rhenium or due to rhenium itself.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> Only a few compounds of rhenium have been tested for their acute toxicity; two examples are potassium perrhenate and rhenium trichloride, which were injected as a solution into rats. The perrhenate had an <a href="/facts/Median_lethal_dose/PSTer8Wv">LD50</a> value of 2800 mg/kg after seven days (this is very low toxicity, similar to that of table salt) and the rhenium trichloride showed LD50 of 280 mg/kg.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Scerri, Eric (2013). <i>A Tale of Seven Elements</i>. Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195391312.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rhenium. Look up <i>rhenium</i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. <ul><li><a href="http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/075.htm">Rhenium</a> at <i><a href="/facts/The_Periodic_Table_of_Videos/vC5kbN0M">The Periodic Table of Videos</a></i> (University of Nottingham)</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Die Ekamangane". Naturwissenschaften (in German). 13 (26): 567–574. 1925-06-01. Bibcode:1925NW.....13..567.. doi:10.1007/BF01558746. ISSN 1432-1904. S2CID 32974087. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01558746" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01558746</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"From Hydrogen to Darmstadtium & More". 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