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Formal science
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<h2 id="branches">Branches</h2> <ol><li><a href="/facts/Logic/8JnpJLtt">Logic</a> (also a branch of <a href="/facts/Philosophy/zAH5PVD6">philosophy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Mathematics/pxTouaz4">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Statistics/DNPsKGYU">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Systems_science/necfqoog">Systems science</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Data_science/AHYUo0Rn">Data science</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Information_science/HGG3e3Jv">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Computer_science/lN3pEyPz">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cryptography/e94PEVau">Cryptography</a></li></ol> <h2 id="differences-from-other-sciences">Differences from other sciences</h2> <p>One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its laws are absolutely certain and indisputable, while those of other sciences are to some extent debatable and in constant danger of being overthrown by newly discovered facts.</p>— <a href="/facts/Albert_Einstein/CNTet8qu">Albert Einstein</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> <p>Because of their non-empirical nature, formal sciences are construed by outlining a set of <a href="/facts/Axioms/mLjP14Mc">axioms</a> and <a href="/facts/Definitions/5SlGKKDJ">definitions</a> from which other statements (<a href="/facts/Theorems/f2Pe1FMD">theorems</a>) are deduced. For this reason, in <a href="/facts/Rudolf_Carnap/0nqgBwnw">Rudolf Carnap</a>'s <a href="/facts/Logical_positivism/Dc6XMTsc">logical-positivist</a> conception of the <a href="/facts/Philosophy_of_science/aonsfhTY">epistemology of science</a>, theories belonging to formal sciences are understood to contain no <a href="/facts/Analytic-synthetic_distinction/J1nXtGzd">synthetic statements</a>, instead containing only analytic statements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Philosophy/zAH5PVD6">Philosophy</a> – Study of general and fundamental questions</li> <li><a href="/facts/Science/IJoaD7rs">Science</a> – Systematic endeavour to gain knowledge</li> <li><a href="/facts/Rationalism/MNk171TG">Rationalism</a> – Epistemological view centered on reason</li> <li><a href="/facts/Abstract_structure/EkSkcwdQ">Abstract structure</a> – Type of abstraction in science, mathematics, and philosophy</li> <li><a href="/facts/Abstraction_(mathematics)/JCYl47fF">Abstraction in mathematics</a> – Process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical concept</li> <li><a href="/facts/Abstraction_(computer_science)/hAnxmJle">Abstraction in computer science</a> – Technique for arranging complexity of computer systems</li> <li><a href="/facts/Cognitive_science/8qoggl7r">Cognitive science</a> – Interdisciplinary scientific study of cognitive processes</li> <li><a href="/facts/Formalism_(philosophy_of_mathematics)/g0690AVL">Formalism (philosophy of mathematics)</a> – View that mathematics does not necessarily represent reality, but is more akin to a game</li> <li><a href="/facts/Formal_grammar/QLxaQNAz">Formal grammar</a> – Structure of a formal language</li> <li><a href="/facts/Formal_language/crDTyP8q">Formal language</a> – Sequence of words formed by specific rules</li> <li><a href="/facts/Formal_methods/tw4FCWIb">Formal methods</a> – Mathematical program specifications</li> <li><a href="/facts/Formal_system/KaeDAjK7">Formal system</a> – Mathematical model for deduction or proof systems</li> <li><a href="/facts/Form_and_content/07RrDJ2l">Form and content</a> – Distinct aspects of a work of art</li> <li><a href="/facts/Mathematical_model/CGhyuxgz">Mathematical model</a> – Description of a system using mathematical concepts and language</li> <li><a href="/facts/Mathematical_sciences/bLweGlQp">Mathematical sciences</a> – Group of areas of study that are primarily mathematical</li> <li><a href="/facts/Mathematics_Subject_Classification/7xeTuuuk">Mathematics Subject Classification</a> – Classification scheme for mathematics</li> <li><a href="/facts/Semiotics/DuS3kK2g">Semiotics</a> – Study of signs and sign processes</li> <li><a href="/facts/Theory_of_forms/e0zj3JR2">Theory of forms</a> – Philosophical theory attributed to Plato</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Mario_Bunge/GWxwT2dB">Mario Bunge</a> (1985). <i>Philosophy of Science and Technology</i>. Springer.</li> <li>Mario Bunge (1998). <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. Rev. ed. of: <i>Scientific research</i>. Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, 1967.</li> <li><a href="/facts/C._West_Churchman/ARJFIpQ5">C. West Churchman</a> (1940). <i>Elements of Logic and Formal Science</i>, J.B. Lippincott Co., New York.</li> <li><a href="/facts/James_Franklin_(philosopher)/LELUjQ9R">James Franklin</a> (1994). <a href="http://www.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/philosophersstone.pdf">The formal sciences discover the philosophers' stone</a>. In: <i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Science</i>. Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 513–533, 1994</li> <li>Stephen Leacock (1906). <i>Elements of Political Science</i>. Houghton, Mifflin Co, 417 pp.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Karl_Popper/RpLqMrz5">Popper, Karl R.</a> (2002) [1959]. <a href="/facts/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery/H1GX1YL0"><i>The Logic of Scientific Discovery</i></a>. New York, NY: Routledge Classics. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-415-27844-9. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59377149">59377149</a>.</li> <li>Bernt P. Stigum (1990). <i>Toward a Formal Science of Economics</i>. <a href="/facts/MIT_Press/eTerUM3c">MIT Press</a></li> <li>Marcus Tomalin (2006), <i><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XbjFag2qCygC">Linguistics and the Formal Sciences</a></i>. Cambridge University Press</li> <li>William L. Twining (1997). <i>Law in Context: Enlarging a Discipline</i>. 365 pp.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li> Media related to Formal sciences at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a href="http://www.math.uni-bonn.de/people/fotfs/">Interdisciplinary conferences — <i>Foundations of the Formal Sciences</i></a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Albert Einstein (1923). "Geometry and Experience". Sidelights on relativity. Courier Dover Publications. p. 27. Reprinted by Dover (2010), ISBN 978-0-486-24511-9. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" target="_blank">/wiki/Albert_Einstein</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Carnap, Rudolf (1938). "Logical Foundations of the Unity of Science". International Encyclopaedia of Unified Science. Vol. I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" target="_blank">/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Thompson, Bill (2007), "2.4 Formal Science and Applied Mathematics", The Nature of Statistical Evidence, Lecture Notes in Statistics, vol. 189 (1st ed.), Springer, p. 15 <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>