Ombudsman

<h2 id="origins-and-etymology">Origins and etymology</h2>
A prototype of an ombudsman may have flourished in China during the <a href="/facts/Qin_dynasty/TeBU8Nh3">Qin dynasty</a> (221 BC), and later in <a href="/facts/Korea/cj2kDBzc">Korea</a> during the <a href="/facts/Joseon_dynasty/Vv7SVEfL">Joseon dynasty</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> The position of <a href="/facts/Secret_royal_inspector/rKT4vyBg">secret royal inspector</a>, or amhaeng-eosa (암행어사, 暗行御史) was unique to the Joseon dynasty, where an undercover official directly appointed by the king was sent to local provinces to monitor government officials and look after the populace while travelling incognito. The <a href="/facts/Tribune/VgoaY9lR">Roman tribune</a> had some similar roles, with the power to veto acts that infringed upon the <a href="/facts/Plebs/jVV0GEo9">Plebeians</a>. Another precursor to the ombudsman was the Diwān al-Maẓālim (دِيوَانُ الْمَظَالِمِ) which appears to go back to the second <a href="/facts/Caliph/qQ6hCspe">caliph</a>, <a href="/facts/Umar/cIfqERQW">Umar</a> (634–644), and the concept of Qaḍī al-Quḍāt (قَاضِي الْقُضَاةِ).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> They were also attested in Siam, India, the <a href="/facts/Liao_dynasty/aLMKfWr7">Liao dynasty</a>, Japan, and China.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a>
An indigenous <a href="/facts/Swedish_language/1DkSIXkH">Swedish</a>, <a href="/facts/Norwegian_language/TGEyeerM">Norwegian</a>, and <a href="/facts/Danish_language/sTcGXTMJ">Danish</a> term, ombudsman, ombodsmann, ombudsmann or ombudsmand is etymologically rooted in the <a href="/facts/Old_Norse/3dIvgsm5">Old Norse</a> word umboðsmaðr, essentially meaning 'representative' (with the word umbud/ombod/ombud meaning 'proxy', 'attorney'; that is, someone who is authorized to act for someone else, a meaning it still has in the Scandinavian languages). In the Danish <a href="/facts/Jyske_Lov/dQHkRXuR">Law of Jutland</a> from 1241, the term is umbozman and concretely means a royal civil servant in a <a href="/facts/Hundred_(county_division)/bf6h3RyL">hundred</a>. From 1552, it is also used in other Nordic languages such as the <a href="/facts/Icelandic_language/4GmzhaoT">Icelandic</a> and <a href="/facts/Faroese_language/1nf145FG">Faroese</a> umboðsmaður, the Norwegian ombudsmann/ombodsmann, and the Swedish ombudsman (pronounced [ˈɔ̂mːbʉːdsˌman] ⓘ). The general meaning was and is approximately 'a man representing (someone)' (i.e., a representative) or 'a man with a commission (from someone)' (a commissioner). The Swedish-speaking minority in Finland uses the Swedish terminology. The various forms of the suffix -mand, -maður, et cetera, are just the forms the common Germanic word represented by the <a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English</a> word man have in the various languages. Thus, the modern plural form ombudsmen of the English borrowed word ombudsman is likely.
Use of the term in its modern sense began in Sweden with the <a href="/facts/Parliamentary_Ombudsman/YDbCpXQL">Swedish Parliamentary Ombudsman</a> instituted by the <a href="/facts/Instrument_of_Government_(1809)/6jqEYG4E">Instrument of Government</a> of 1809, to safeguard the rights of citizens by establishing a supervisory agency independent of the <a href="/facts/Executive_branch/fPCCh3VU">executive branch</a>. The predecessor of the Swedish Parliamentary Ombudsman was the Office of Supreme Ombudsman (Högste Ombudsmannen), which was established by the Swedish King, <a href="/facts/Charles_XII_of_Sweden/ok91uogE">Charles XII</a>, in 1713. Charles XII was in exile in <a href="/facts/Turkey/KIYAWAs0">Turkey</a> and needed a representative in Sweden to ensure that judges and civil servants acted in accordance with the laws and with their duties. If they did not do so, the Supreme Ombudsman had the right to prosecute them for negligence. In 1719 the Swedish Office of Supreme Ombudsman became the <a href="/facts/Chancellor_of_Justice/UrpEEma1">Chancellor of Justice</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> The <a href="/facts/Parliamentary_Ombudsman/YDbCpXQL">Parliamentary Ombudsman</a> was established in 1809 by the Swedish <a href="/facts/Parliament_of_Sweden/uarwUozH">Riksdag</a>, as a parallel institution to the still-present Chancellor of Justice, reflecting the concept of <a href="/facts/Separation_of_powers/erlL7IMq">separation of powers</a> as developed by <a href="/facts/Charles_de_Secondat,_baron_de_Montesquieu/ymhUTD0J">Montesquieu</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a>
The Parliamentary Ombudsman is the institution that the Scandinavian countries subsequently developed into its contemporary form, and which subsequently has been adopted in many other parts of the world. The word ombudsman and its specific meaning have since been adopted in various languages, such as Dutch. The German language uses Ombudsmann, Ombudsfrau and Ombudsleute. Notable exceptions are French, Italian, Spanish, and <a href="/facts/Finnish_language/lBuEIgs0">Finnish</a>, which use translations instead. Modern variations of this term include ombud, ombuds, ombudsperson, or ombudswoman, and the conventional English plural is ombudsmen. In Nigeria, the ombudsman is known as the Public Complaints Commission or the ombudsman.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a>

<h2 id="in-politics">In politics</h2>
In general, an ombudsman is a state official appointed to provide a check on government activity in the interests of the citizen and to oversee the investigation of complaints of improper government activity against the citizen. If the ombudsman finds a complaint to be substantiated, the problem may get rectified, or an ombudsman report is published making recommendations for change. Further redress depends on the laws of the country concerned, but this typically involves financial compensation. Ombudsmen in most countries do not have the power to initiate legal proceedings or prosecution on the grounds of a complaint. This role is sometimes referred to as a "tribunician" role, and has been traditionally fulfilled by elected representatives – the term refers to the ancient Roman "<a href="/facts/Tribune/VgoaY9lR">tribunes of the plebeians</a>" (tribuni plebis), whose role was to intercede in the political process on behalf of common citizens.
The significant advantage of an ombudsman is that they examine complaints from outside the offending state institution, thus avoiding the conflicts of interest inherent in self-policing. However, the ombudsman system relies heavily on the selection of an appropriate individual for the office, and on the cooperation of at least some effective official from within the apparatus of the state. However, sociologist Jürgen Beyer has criticised the institution, stating: "Ombudsmen are relics of absolutism, designed to iron out the worst excesses of administrative arbitrariness while keeping the power structures intact."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>

<h2 id="in-organizations">In organizations</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Organizational_ombudsman/VJsDLd8m">Organizational ombudsman</a>
Many private companies, universities, non-profit organisations, and government agencies also have an ombudsman (or an ombuds office) to serve internal employees, managers and/or other constituencies. These ombudsman roles are structured to function independently, by reporting to the CEO or board of directors, and according to the International Ombudsman Association (IOA) Standards of Practice, they do not have any other role in the organisation. Organisational ombudsmen often receive more complaints than alternative procedures such as anonymous hot-lines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a>
Since the 1960s, the profession has grown in the United States, and Canada, particularly in corporations, universities, and government agencies. The <a href="/facts/Organizational_ombudsman/VJsDLd8m">organizational ombudsman</a> works as a designated neutral party, one who is high-ranking in an organization, but who is not part of executive management. Using an <a href="/facts/Alternative_dispute_resolution/h0SegYME">alternative dispute resolution</a> (ADR) or appropriate dispute resolution approach, an organisational ombudsman can provide options to <a href="/facts/Whistleblower/Ah5QHEW1">whistleblowers</a> or employees and managers with <a href="/facts/Business_ethics/FtabwSTC">ethical</a> concerns; provide coaching, shuttle diplomacy, generic solutions (meaning a solution which protects the identity of one individual by applying to a class of people, rather than just for the one individual) and <a href="/facts/Mediation/qq5TInwB">mediation</a> for conflicts; track problem areas; and make recommendations for changes to policies or procedures in support of orderly systems change.

<h2 id="ombudsman-services-by-country">Ombudsman services by country</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Ombudsman_services_by_country/DcXfnMLq">Ombudsman services by country</a>
For specific ombudspersons or commissioners for children or young people, also see <a href="/facts/Children%27s_ombudsman/sJQ7vQNY">Children's ombudsman</a>.

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Children%27s_ombudsman/sJQ7vQNY">Children's ombudsman</a> – Public authority in charge of children's rights</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Complaint_system/pf3fGoae">Complaint system</a> – Set of procedures used in organizations to address complaints & resolve disputes</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Global_Alliance_of_National_Human_Rights_Institutions/FLBvkRlz">Global Alliance of National Human Rights Institutions (GANHRI)</a>—Coordinates the relationship between national human right institutions and the United Nations human rights system</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Human_rights_activists/tXfjFn2v">Human rights activists</a> – Person who acts to protect human rightsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Information_commissioner/PujNmo0b">Information commissioner</a> – government regulator of freedom of information and protection of personal dataPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li>
<li><a href="/facts/International_Ombudsman_Institute/8YWTIvm1">International Ombudsman Institute</a> (IOI)—Representing 150 public sector independent ombudsman institutions on the national, state, regional and local level around the globe</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Liaison_officer/zjgH0WLE">Liaison officer</a> – Coordinator and communicator between organizations</li>
<li><a href="/facts/National_human_rights_institution/90I3EMyf">National human rights institution</a> – Type of independent state-based institution</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ombudsman_services_by_country/DcXfnMLq">Ombudsman services by country</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Look up ombudsman in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ombudsman.

<ul><li><a href="http://www.jpgmonline.com/article.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=2002;volume=48;issue=4;spage=292;epage=6;aulast=Satyanarayana">JPGMOnline.com</a> – 'The role of the ombudsman in biomedical journals', <a href="/facts/Journal_of_Postgraduate_Medicine/wALbPhV5">Journal of Postgraduate Medicine</a>, Vol 48, No 4, pp 292–296, 2002</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050302184823/http://www.pogo.org/p/environment/ea-020420-epa.html">POGO.org</a> – 'EPA Ombudsman Resigns: Accountability in Handling of Superfund Sites Threatened', <a href="/facts/Project_on_Government_Oversight/dUg4A0cB">Project on Government Oversight</a> (22 April 2002)</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051116194002/http://www.transparency.org/sourcebook/10.pdf">Transparency.org</a> – 'What is an Ombudsman'</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160305104224/http://dcaf.ch/Publications/Ombuds-Institutions-for-the-Armed-Forces-A-Handbook">Ombudsman Institutions for the Armed Forces Handbook</a> – 'A practical guide to the role of military ombudsman', <a href="/facts/Geneva_Centre_for_the_Democratic_Control_of_Armed_Forces/RXMzIl1x">Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces</a> (DCAF)</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070615173150/http://www.ecmi.de/doc/ombudsman/download/guide_uk.pdf">Ombudsman Institutions and Minority Issues</a>, Study by the European Centre for Minority Issues</li>
<li><a href="https://soep-online.de/">SÖP Schlichtungsstelle für den öffentlichen Personenverkehr e.V.</a>, Ombudsman Institution of Public Transport in Germany</li>
<li><a href="https://deflem.blogspot.com/2017/05/ombudscontrol.html">Deflem, Mathieu. 2017. "The Ombuds and Social Control."</a> The Independent Voice, IOA newsletter, May 2017.</li></ul>
<h3>International and regional ombudsman associations</h3>
<ul><li>Africa
<ul><li><a href="https://law.ukzn.ac.za/african-ombudsman-research-centre">African Ombudsman Research Centre</a> (AORC), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230328095239/https://law.ukzn.ac.za/african-ombudsman-research-centre">Archived</a> 2023-03-28 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul></li>
<li>North America
<ul><li><a href="https://accuo.ca">Association of Canadian College and University Ombudspersons</a> (ACCUO)</li></ul></li>
<li>Asia
<ul><li><a href="http://www.asianombudsman.com/">Asian Ombudsman Association</a> (AOA) – "To promote the concepts of Ombudsmanship and to encourage its development in Asia"</li></ul></li>
<li>Australasia
<ul><li><a href="http://www.anzoa.com.au">Australian and New Zealand Ombudsman Association</a> (ANZOA)</li></ul></li>
<li>Europe/N.Africa
<ul><li><a href="https://archive.today/20130415120112/http://www.ombudsman-med.org/eng/">Association of Mediterranean Ombudsmen</a> (AMO)</li>
<li><a href="https://www.ombudsmanassociation.org/">Ombudsman Association</a> (formerly the British and Irish Ombudsman Association, BIOA)</li>
<li><a href="http://enoc.eu">European Network of Ombudspersons for Children</a> (ENOC)</li>
<li><a href="https://www.enohe.net">European Network of Ombudsmen in Higher Education</a> (ENOHE), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050430070819/http://www.english.uva.nl/enohe/enohe_network.cfm/">Archived</a> 30 April 2005 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a> – webpage at <a href="/facts/Universiteit_van_Amsterdam/VqQ6q6QK">Universiteit van Amsterdam</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.eoi.at">European Ombudsman Institute</a> (EOI)</li></ul></li>
<li>global
<ul><li><a href="http://www.ombudsassociation.org">International Ombudsman Association</a> (IOA)</li>
<li><a href="http://www.newsombudsmen.org">Organization of News Ombudsmen</a> (ONO)</li></ul></li></ul>
<h3>Ombudsman directories</h3>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.theioi.org/">IOI</a> – International Ombudsman Institute (international directory of ombudsmen)</li>
<li><a href="http://ombuds-blog.blogspot.com/">Ombuds Blog</a> includes lists of organizational ombuds offices in corporations, academic, governmental, and other organizations</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"ombudsman". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 10 May 2019. <a href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ombudsman" target="_blank">https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ombudsman</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">"Ombudsman". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 10 May 2019. <a href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ombudsman" target="_blank">https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ombudsman</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">"ombudsman" (US) and "ombudsman". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 22 March 2020. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190510145140/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/ombudsman" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20190510145140/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/ombudsman</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Mahbubur Rahman, Muhammad (July 2011). BCS Bangladesh Affairs (in Bengali). Vol. I & II. Lion Muhammad Gias Uddin. p. 46 (Vol. II). <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Park, Sangyil (2008). Korean Preaching, Han, and Narrative. American University Studies. Series VII. Theology and Religion. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-0449-7. <a href="978-1-4331-0449-7" target="_blank">978-1-4331-0449-7</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Pickl, V. (1987). "Islamic Roots of Ombudsman Systems". The Ombudsman Journal. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">McKenna Lang, "A Western King and an Ancient Notion: Reflections on the Origins of Ombudsing", Journal of Conflictology. Archived 22 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine http://www.raco.cat/index.php/Conflictology/article/viewArticle/251703/0 http://openaccess.uoc.edu/webapps/o2/handle/10609/12627 <a href="http://elcrps.uoc.edu/index.php/journal-of-conflictology/article/view/vol2iss2-lang" target="_blank">http://elcrps.uoc.edu/index.php/journal-of-conflictology/article/view/vol2iss2-lang</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">ombudsmän, Riksdagens. "Historik". Archived from the original on 9 October 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071009075227/http://www.jo.se/Page.aspx?MenuId=20&MainmenuId=12&ObjectClass=DynamX_Documents&Language=sv" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20071009075227/http://www.jo.se/Page.aspx?MenuId=20&MainmenuId=12&ObjectClass=DynamX_Documents&Language=sv</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">ombudsmän, Riksdagens. "Historik". Archived from the original on 9 October 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2017. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071009075227/http://www.jo.se/Page.aspx?MenuId=20&MainmenuId=12&ObjectClass=DynamX_Documents&Language=sv" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20071009075227/http://www.jo.se/Page.aspx?MenuId=20&MainmenuId=12&ObjectClass=DynamX_Documents&Language=sv</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">The Public Complaint's Commission (Amendment) Act No. 21 of 1979. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Beyer, Jürgen (2014). "The influence of reading room rules on the quality and efficiency of historical research" (PDF). Svensk tidskrift för bibliografi. 8 (3): 125. <a href="http://kodu.ut.ee/~jbeyer/Reading_room_rules.pdf" target="_blank">http://kodu.ut.ee/~jbeyer/Reading_room_rules.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Charles L. Howard, The Organizational Ombudsman: Origins, Roles and Operations, a Legal Guide, ABA, 2010. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Ombudsman open-in-new

Ombudsman