Vanadium

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
Vanadium was <a href="/facts/Discovery_of_the_chemical_elements/QY4X2RP3">discovered</a> in Mexico in 1801 by the Spanish mineralogist <a href="/facts/Andr%C3%A9s_Manuel_del_R%C3%ADo/JtjulKWC">Andrés Manuel del Río</a>. Del Río extracted the element from a sample of Mexican "brown lead" ore, later named <a href="/facts/Vanadinite/1ycny5le">vanadinite</a>. He found that its salts exhibit a wide variety of colors, and as a result, he named the element panchromium (Greek: παγχρώμιο "all colors"). Later, del Río renamed the element erythronium (Greek: ερυθρός "red") because most of the salts turned red upon heating. In 1805, French chemist <a href="/facts/Hippolyte_Victor_Collet-Descotils/aXCoz77U">Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils</a>, backed by del Río's friend Baron <a href="/facts/Alexander_von_Humboldt/5AuxyDbh">Alexander von Humboldt</a>, incorrectly declared that del Río's new element was an impure sample of <a href="/facts/Chromium/6sVk6Uu7">chromium</a>. Del Río accepted Collet-Descotils' statement and retracted his claim.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1">1</a>
In 1831 Swedish chemist <a href="/facts/Nils_Gabriel_Sefstr%C3%B6m/d7Q0twnJ">Nils Gabriel Sefström</a> rediscovered the element in a new oxide he found while working with <a href="/facts/Iron_ore/rQMEvgMh">iron ores</a>. Later that year, <a href="/facts/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler/D7uh7ySD">Friedrich Wöhler</a> confirmed that this element was identical to that found by del Río and hence confirmed del Río's earlier work.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> Sefström chose a name beginning with V, which had not yet been assigned to any element. He called the element vanadium after <a href="/facts/Old_Norse/3dIvgsm5">Old Norse</a> <a href="/facts/Freyja/M087RW40">Vanadís</a> (another name for the <a href="/facts/Norse_mythology/hEKfeQql">Norse</a> <a href="/facts/Vanir/SuFsanz6">Vanir</a> goddess <a href="/facts/Freyja/M087RW40">Freyja</a>, whose attributes include beauty and fertility), because of the many beautifully colored <a href="/facts/Chemical_compound/37FXqqtv">chemical compounds</a> it produces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a> On learning of Wöhler's findings, del Río began to passionately argue that his old claim be recognized, but the element kept the name vanadium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> In 1831, the geologist <a href="/facts/George_William_Featherstonhaugh/0PL0UUTt">George William Featherstonhaugh</a> suggested that vanadium should be renamed "rionium" after del Río, but this suggestion was not followed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a>

As vanadium is usually found combined with other elements, the isolation of vanadium metal was difficult.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> In 1831, <a href="/facts/J%C3%B6ns_Jakob_Berzelius/HakSv3sP">Berzelius</a> reported the production of the metal, but <a href="/facts/Henry_Enfield_Roscoe/sj0mfCbv">Henry Enfield Roscoe</a> showed that Berzelius had produced the nitride, <a href="/facts/Vanadium_nitride/pmkIChcP">vanadium nitride</a> (VN). Roscoe eventually produced the metal in 1867 by reduction of <a href="/facts/Vanadium(II)_chloride/2vom4WXE">vanadium(II) chloride</a>, VCl2, with <a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">hydrogen</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> In 1927, pure vanadium was produced by reducing <a href="/facts/Vanadium_pentoxide/LPtvz4pq">vanadium pentoxide</a> with <a href="/facts/Calcium/hf252CC0">calcium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>
The first large-scale industrial use of vanadium was in the <a href="/facts/Steel/aN6qWo4H">steel</a> alloy chassis of the <a href="/facts/Ford_Model_T/wNywoygq">Ford Model T</a>, inspired by French race cars. Vanadium steel allowed reduced weight while increasing <a href="/facts/Tensile_strength/Cv2jPplR">tensile strength</a> (c. 1905).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> For the first decade of the 20th century, most vanadium ore were mined by the <a href="/facts/American_Vanadium_Company/CTt8nzk9">American Vanadium Company</a> from the <a href="/facts/Minas_Ragra/98HMlcLo">Minas Ragra</a> in Peru. Later, the demand for uranium rose, leading to increased mining of that metal's ores. One major uranium ore was <a href="/facts/Carnotite/hhL3Ekft">carnotite</a>, which also contains vanadium. Thus, vanadium became available as a by-product of uranium production. Eventually, uranium mining began to supply a large share of the demand for vanadium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>
In 1911, German chemist <a href="/facts/Friedrich_Wolfgang_Martin_Henze/PV3ayXgy">Martin Henze</a> discovered vanadium in the <a href="/facts/Hemovanadin/rWtKyHxx">hemovanadin</a> proteins found in <a href="/facts/Blood_cell/lf9GA0Dj">blood cells</a> (or <a href="/facts/Coelom/PD25dd6m">coelomic</a> cells) of <a href="/facts/Ascidiacea/Vkqqavut">Ascidiacea</a> (sea squirts).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>

<h2 id="characteristics">Characteristics</h2>

Vanadium is an average-hard, <a href="/facts/Ductility/SBJsahEk">ductile</a>, steel-blue metal. Vanadium is usually described as "soft", because it is ductile, <a href="/facts/Malleable/SBJsahEk">malleable</a>, and not <a href="/facts/Brittle/cn27H2vg">brittle</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> Vanadium is harder than most metals and steels (see <a href="/facts/Hardnesses_of_the_elements_(data_page)/Rb9TYYSA">Hardnesses of the elements (data page)</a> and <a href="/facts/Iron/QK1JYy8E">iron</a>). It has good resistance to <a href="/facts/Corrosion/lIC7H4we">corrosion</a> and it is stable against <a href="/facts/Alkali/s6NqPGSP">alkalis</a> and <a href="/facts/Sulfuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">sulfuric</a> and <a href="/facts/Hydrochloric_acid/HqItJlUT">hydrochloric acids</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> It is <a href="/facts/Oxidation/Pyd5RVcj">oxidized</a> in air at about 933 <a href="/facts/Kelvin/E3trzC4C">K</a> (660 °C, 1220 °F), although an oxide <a href="/facts/Passivation_(chemistry)/tPADJj5G">passivation</a> layer forms even at room temperature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> It also reacts with hydrogen peroxide.

<h3>Isotopes</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Isotopes_of_vanadium/R4BEw3I9">Isotopes of vanadium</a>
Naturally occurring vanadium is composed of one stable <a href="/facts/Isotope/KD9B1y6o">isotope</a>, 51V, and one radioactive isotope, 50V. The latter has a <a href="/facts/Half-life/kGVH8BAB">half-life</a> of 2.71×1017 years and a natural abundance of 0.25%. 51V has a <a href="/facts/Nuclear_spin/1Qgep495">nuclear spin</a> of 7⁄2, which is useful for <a href="/facts/Vanadium-51_nuclear_magnetic_resonance/byp59MKu">NMR spectroscopy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> Twenty-four artificial <a href="/facts/Radioisotope/5WpCfbdq">radioisotopes</a> have been characterized, ranging in <a href="/facts/Mass_number/VyBbJ1oI">mass number</a> from 40 to 65. The most stable of these isotopes are 49V with a half-life of 330 days, and 48V with a half-life of 16.0 days. The remaining <a href="/facts/Radioactive/Ya6FVjt4">radioactive</a> isotopes have half-lives shorter than an hour, most below 10 seconds. At least four isotopes have <a href="/facts/Nuclear_isomer/L8DHcqnk">metastable excited states</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> <a href="/facts/Electron_capture/EIccoV1u">Electron capture</a> is the main <a href="/facts/Decay_mode/Ya6FVjt4">decay mode</a> for isotopes lighter than 51V. For the heavier ones, the most common mode is <a href="/facts/Beta_decay/vxTBlckp">beta decay</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> The electron capture reactions lead to the formation of element 22 (<a href="/facts/Titanium/53ArnDoy">titanium</a>) isotopes, while beta decay leads to element 24 (<a href="/facts/Chromium/6sVk6Uu7">chromium</a>) isotopes.

<h2 id="compounds">Compounds</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Vanadium_compounds/UvKkKTSm">Vanadium compounds</a>

The chemistry of vanadium is noteworthy for the accessibility of the four adjacent <a href="/facts/Oxidation_state/W53W6s6V">oxidation states</a> 2–5. In an <a href="/facts/Metal_ions_in_aqueous_solution/LtheVUDy">aqueous solution</a>, vanadium forms <a href="/facts/Metal_aquo_complex/eKudHVQy">metal aquo complexes</a> of which the colors are lilac [V(H2O)6]2+, green [V(H2O)6]3+, blue [VO(H2O)5]2+, yellow-orange oxides [VO(H2O)5]3+, the formula for which depends on pH. Vanadium(II) compounds are reducing agents, and vanadium(V) compounds are oxidizing agents. Vanadium(IV) compounds often exist as <a href="/facts/Vanadyl_ion/Guma1f7r">vanadyl</a> derivatives, which contain the VO2+ center.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>
<a href="/facts/Ammonium_metavanadate/GrDHx3Qh">Ammonium vanadate(V)</a> (NH4VO3) can be successively reduced with elemental <a href="/facts/Zinc/80b1qgk3">zinc</a> to obtain the different colors of vanadium in these four oxidation states. Lower oxidation states occur in compounds such as <a href="/facts/Vanadium_hexacarbonyl/Fn1PuRPk">V(CO)6</a>, [V(CO)6]− and substituted derivatives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>
<a href="/facts/Vanadium(V)_oxide/LPtvz4pq">Vanadium pentoxide</a> is a commercially important catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid, a reaction that exploits the ability of vanadium oxides to undergo redox reactions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>
The <a href="/facts/Vanadium_redox_battery/y8VIzUJy">vanadium redox battery</a> utilizes all four oxidation states: one electrode uses the +5/+4 couple and the other uses the +3/+2 couple. Conversion of these oxidation states is illustrated by the reduction of a strongly acidic solution of a vanadium(V) compound with zinc dust or amalgam. The initial yellow color characteristic of the pervanadyl ion [VO2(H2O)4]+ is replaced by the blue color of [VO(H2O)5]2+, followed by the green color of [V(H2O)6]3+ and then the violet color of [V(H2O)6]2+.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> Another potential vanadium battery based on VB2 uses multiple oxidation state to allow for 11 electrons to be released per VB2, giving it higher energy capacity by order of compared to Li-ion and gasoline per unit volume.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> VB2 batteries can be further enhanced as air batteries, allowing for even higher energy density and lower weight than lithium battery or gasoline, even though recharging remains a challenge. <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>

<h3>Oxyanions</h3>

In an aqueous solution, vanadium(V) forms an extensive family of <a href="/facts/Oxyanion/0GuWXr6D">oxyanions</a> as established by <a href="/facts/Vanadium-51_nuclear_magnetic_resonance/byp59MKu">51V NMR spectroscopy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> The interrelationships in this family are described by the <a href="/facts/Predominance_diagram/XfFAVA1P">predominance diagram</a>, which shows at least 11 species, depending on pH and concentration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> The tetrahedral orthovanadate ion, VO3−4, is the principal species present at pH 12–14. Similar in size and charge to phosphorus(V), vanadium(V) also parallels its chemistry and crystallography. <a href="/facts/Sodium_orthovanadate/DmQrWVEh">Orthovanadate</a> VO3−4 is used in <a href="/facts/Protein_crystallography/WtI0F5DN">protein crystallography</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> to study the <a href="/facts/Biochemistry/fa2pWEBp">biochemistry</a> of phosphate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> Besides that, this anion also has been shown to interact with the activity of some specific enzymes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> The tetrathiovanadate [VS4]3− is analogous to the orthovanadate ion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a>
At lower pH values, the monomer [HVO4]2− and dimer [V2O7]4− are formed, with the monomer predominant at a vanadium concentration of less than c. 10−2M (pV > 2, where pV is equal to the minus value of the logarithm of the total vanadium concentration/M). The formation of the divanadate ion is analogous to the formation of the <a href="/facts/Dichromate/6xkFLIJw">dichromate</a> ion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> As the pH is reduced, further protonation and condensation to <a href="/facts/Vanadate/hapXvTPr">polyvanadates</a> occur: at pH 4–6 [H2VO4]− is predominant at pV greater than ca. 4, while at higher concentrations trimers and tetramers are formed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> Between pH 2–4 <a href="/facts/Decavanadate/PcMh2l7c">decavanadate</a> predominates, its formation from orthovanadate is represented by this condensation reaction:

10 [VO4]3− + 24 H+ → [V10O28]6− + 12 H2O

In decavanadate, each V(V) center is surrounded by six oxide <a href="/facts/Ligand/6etB3qeW">ligands</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> Vanadic acid, H3VO4, exists only at very low concentrations because protonation of the tetrahedral species [H2VO4]− results in the preferential formation of the octahedral [VO2(H2O)4]+ species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> In strongly acidic solutions, pH < 2, [VO2(H2O)4]+ is the predominant species, while the oxide V2O5 precipitates from solution at high concentrations. The oxide is formally the <a href="/facts/Acidic_oxide/2h1jor4I">acid anhydride</a> of vanadic acid. The structures of many <a href="/facts/Vanadate/hapXvTPr">vanadate</a> compounds have been determined by X-ray crystallography.

Vanadium(V) forms various peroxo complexes, most notably in the active site of the vanadium-containing <a href="/facts/Bromoperoxidase/T9h1L23y">bromoperoxidase</a> enzymes. The species VO(O2)(H2O)4+ is stable in acidic solutions. In alkaline solutions, species with 2, 3 and 4 peroxide groups are known; the last forms violet salts with the formula M3V(O2)4 nH2O (M= Li, Na, etc.), in which the vanadium has an 8-coordinate dodecahedral structure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>

<h3>Halide derivatives</h3>
Twelve binary <a href="/facts/Halides/ujYu8kGD">halides</a>, compounds with the formula VXn (n=2..5), are known.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> VI4, VCl5, VBr5, and VI5 do not exist or are extremely unstable. In combination with other reagents, <a href="/facts/Vanadium(IV)_chloride/evQC8Yzp">VCl4</a> is used as a catalyst for the polymerization of <a href="/facts/Diene/F5NxrLPW">dienes</a>. Like all binary halides, those of vanadium are <a href="/facts/Lewis_acid/qlLqRvg2">Lewis acidic</a>, especially those of V(IV) and V(V).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> Many of the halides form octahedral complexes with the formula VXnL6−n (X= halide; L= other ligand).
Many vanadium <a href="/facts/Oxyhalide/vAppA4lU">oxyhalides</a> (formula VOmXn) are known.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> The oxytrichloride and oxytrifluoride (<a href="/facts/Vanadium_oxytrichloride/I7j4kd7B">VOCl3</a> and <a href="/facts/Vanadium(V)_oxytrifluoride/yca7yleX">VOF3</a>) are the most widely studied. Akin to POCl3, they are volatile,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> adopt tetrahedral structures in the gas phase, and are Lewis acidic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a>

<h3>Coordination compounds</h3>

Complexes of vanadium(II) and (III) are reducing, while those of V(IV) and V(V) are oxidants. The vanadium ion is rather large and some complexes achieve coordination numbers greater than 6, as is the case in [V(CN)7]4−. Oxovanadium(V) also forms 7 coordinate coordination complexes with tetradentate ligands and peroxides and these complexes are used for oxidative brominations and thioether oxidations. The coordination chemistry of V4+ is dominated by the <a href="/facts/Vanadyl/Guma1f7r">vanadyl</a> center, VO2+, which binds four other ligands strongly and one weakly (the one trans to the vanadyl center). An example is <a href="/facts/Vanadyl_acetylacetonate/8zLGkmIs">vanadyl acetylacetonate</a> (V(O)(O2C5H7)2). In this complex, the vanadium is 5-coordinate, distorted square pyramidal, meaning that a sixth ligand, such as pyridine, may be attached, though the <a href="/facts/Association_constant/MA7wKe5v">association constant</a> of this process is small. Many 5-coordinate vanadyl complexes have a trigonal bipyramidal geometry, such as VOCl2(NMe3)2.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> The coordination chemistry of V5+ is dominated by the relatively stable dioxovanadium coordination complexes<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> which are often formed by aerial oxidation of the vanadium(IV) precursors indicating the stability of the +5 oxidation state and ease of interconversion between the +4 and +5 states.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a>

<h3>Organometallic compounds</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Organovanadium_chemistry/2sQf7Ev1">Organovanadium chemistry</a>
The organometallic chemistry of vanadium is well–developed. <a href="/facts/Vanadocene_dichloride/lUe2BJ3q">Vanadocene dichloride</a> is a versatile starting reagent and has applications in organic chemistry.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> <a href="/facts/Vanadium_carbonyl/Fn1PuRPk">Vanadium carbonyl</a>, V(CO)6, is a rare example of a paramagnetic <a href="/facts/Metal_carbonyl/KzJBcMzU">metal carbonyl</a>. Reduction yields V(CO)−6 (<a href="/facts/Isoelectronic/SbzuaI05">isoelectronic</a> with <a href="/facts/Hexacarbonylchromium/A6lgmlIj">Cr(CO)6</a>), which may be further reduced with sodium in liquid ammonia to yield V(CO)3−5 (isoelectronic with Fe(CO)5).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a>

<h2 id="occurrence">Occurrence</h2>

Metallic vanadium is rare in nature (known as native vanadium),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> having been found among fumaroles of the <a href="/facts/Volc%C3%A1n_de_Colima/fKacbWFS">Colima Volcano</a>, but vanadium compounds occur naturally in about 65 different <a href="/facts/Mineral/LkUFbNmv">minerals</a>. 
Vanadium began to be used in the manufacture of special steels in 1896. At that time, very few deposits of vanadium ores were known. Between 1899 and 1906, the main deposits exploited were the mines of Santa Marta de los Barros (Badajoz), Spain. <a href="/facts/Vanadinite/1ycny5le">Vanadinite</a> was extracted from these mines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> At the beginning of the 20th century, a large deposit of vanadium ore was discovered near Junín, <a href="/facts/Cerro_de_Pasco/Repzx7fB">Cerro de Pasco</a>, <a href="/facts/Peru/dBt7XrYD">Peru</a> (now the <a href="/facts/Minas_Ragra/98HMlcLo">Minas Ragra</a> vanadium mine).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> For several years this <a href="/facts/Patr%C3%B3nite/hcosFGuN">patrónite</a> (VS4)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> deposit was an economically significant source for vanadium ore. In 1920 roughly two-thirds of the worldwide production was supplied by the mine in Peru.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> With the production of uranium in the 1910s and 1920s from <a href="/facts/Carnotite/hhL3Ekft">carnotite</a> (K2(UO2)2(VO4)2·3H2O) vanadium became available as a side product of uranium production. <a href="/facts/Vanadinite/1ycny5le">Vanadinite</a> (Pb5(VO4)3Cl) and other vanadium bearing minerals are only mined in exceptional cases. With the rising demand, much of the world's vanadium production is now sourced from vanadium-bearing <a href="/facts/Magnetite/SVxoGUs2">magnetite</a> found in <a href="/facts/Ultramafic/7qAapP1d">ultramafic</a> <a href="/facts/Gabbro/79gTqpyg">gabbro</a> bodies. If this <a href="/facts/Titanomagnetite/xvcDhp62">titanomagnetite</a> is used to produce iron, most of the vanadium goes to the <a href="/facts/Slag/LD3qEAlV">slag</a> and is extracted from it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a>
Vanadium is mined mostly in <a href="/facts/China/lTjIXY5p">China</a>, <a href="/facts/South_Africa/vvXQpLgq">South Africa</a> and eastern <a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a>. In 2022 these three countries mined more than 96% of the 100,000 <a href="/facts/Tonne/gMymLmWv">tons</a> of produced vanadium, with China providing 70%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a>
Fumaroles of Colima are known of being vanadium-rich, depositing other vanadium minerals, that include shcherbinaite (V2O5) and <a href="/facts/Colimaite/I9Srzknv">colimaite</a> (K3VS4).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a>
Vanadium is also present in <a href="/facts/Bauxite/CJ10QPc6">bauxite</a> and deposits of <a href="/facts/Crude_oil/IQV0bHVd">crude oil</a>, <a href="/facts/Coal/83kV3qxg">coal</a>, <a href="/facts/Oil_shale/WSREUH8t">oil shale</a>, and <a href="/facts/Tar_sand/ewYn43lb">tar sands</a>. In crude oil, concentrations up to 1200 ppm have been reported. When such oil products are burned, traces of vanadium may cause <a href="/facts/Corrosion/lIC7H4we">corrosion</a> in engines and boilers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> An estimated 110,000 tons of vanadium per year are released into the atmosphere by burning <a href="/facts/Fossil_fuels/BPgxAqB7">fossil fuels</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> <a href="/facts/Black_shale/bsIhqY5F">Black shales</a> are also a potential source of vanadium. During WWII some vanadium was extracted from <a href="/facts/Alum_shale/4n999BEl">alum shales</a> in the south of Sweden.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a>
In the universe, the <a href="/facts/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements/CE9WehBl">cosmic abundance</a> of vanadium is 0.0001%, making the element nearly as common as <a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">copper</a> or <a href="/facts/Zinc/80b1qgk3">zinc</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> Vanadium is the 19th most abundant element in the crust.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> It is detected <a href="/facts/Optical_spectrometer/BjshQbA8">spectroscopically</a> in light from the <a href="/facts/Sun/CadPCVHh">Sun</a> and sometimes in the light from other <a href="/facts/Star/PFbd6ICx">stars</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> The <a href="/facts/Vanadyl_ion/Guma1f7r">vanadyl ion</a> is also abundant in <a href="/facts/Seawater/fRBJjbws">seawater</a>, having an average concentration of 30 <a href="/facts/Molar_concentration/P2WL5b9q">nM</a> (1.5 mg/m3).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> Some <a href="/facts/Mineral_water/90W9637u">mineral water</a> <a href="/facts/Spring_(hydrology)/blPBY4VG">springs</a> also contain the ion in high concentrations. For example, springs near <a href="/facts/Mount_Fuji/DkJadl26">Mount Fuji</a> contain as much as 54 <a href="/facts/Microgram/aAHxytph">μg</a> per <a href="/facts/Liter/QKwbQz8I">liter</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a>

<h2 id="production">Production</h2>

Vanadium metal is obtained by a multistep process that begins with roasting crushed ore with <a href="/facts/Sodium_chloride/MWcXl3Mb">NaCl</a> or <a href="/facts/Sodium_carbonate/P6RHvIoK">Na2CO3</a> at about 850 °C to give <a href="/facts/Sodium_metavanadate/lSWG067M">sodium metavanadate</a> (NaVO3). An aqueous extract of this solid is acidified to produce "red cake", a polyvanadate salt, which is reduced with <a href="/facts/Calcium/hf252CC0">calcium</a> metal. As an alternative for small-scale production, vanadium pentoxide is reduced with <a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">hydrogen</a> or <a href="/facts/Magnesium/XyIhd2FG">magnesium</a>. Many other methods are also used, in all of which vanadium is produced as a <a href="/facts/Byproduct/qDosnqoD">byproduct</a> of other processes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> Purification of vanadium is possible by the <a href="/facts/Crystal_bar_process/kw3GMBhY">crystal bar process</a> developed by <a href="/facts/Anton_Eduard_van_Arkel/gRF4Tz4U">Anton Eduard van Arkel</a> and <a href="/facts/Jan_Hendrik_de_Boer/HzBGkwcT">Jan Hendrik de Boer</a> in 1925. It involves the formation of the metal iodide, in this example <a href="/facts/Vanadium(III)_iodide/gBHJsHjT">vanadium(III) iodide</a>, and the subsequent decomposition to yield pure metal:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a>

2 V + 3 I2 ⇌ 2 VI3

Most vanadium is used as a <a href="/facts/Steel/aN6qWo4H">steel</a> alloy called <a href="/facts/Ferrovanadium/akknXqHA">ferrovanadium</a>. Ferrovanadium is produced directly by reducing a mixture of vanadium oxide, iron oxides and iron in an electric furnace. The vanadium ends up in <a href="/facts/Pig_iron/bxLL2NaR">pig iron</a> produced from vanadium-bearing magnetite. Depending on the ore used, the slag contains up to 25% of vanadium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a>

<h2 id="applications">Applications</h2>

<h3>Alloys</h3>
Approximately 85% of the vanadium produced is used as <a href="/facts/Ferrovanadium/akknXqHA">ferrovanadium</a> or as a <a href="/facts/Steel/aN6qWo4H">steel</a> additive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> The considerable increase of strength in steel containing small amounts of vanadium was discovered in the early 20th century. Vanadium forms stable nitrides and carbides, resulting in a significant increase in the strength of steel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> From that time on, vanadium steel was used for applications in <a href="/facts/Axle/Eo5jWI3f">axles</a>, bicycle frames, <a href="/facts/Crankshaft/oYCe9nB3">crankshafts</a>, gears, and other critical components. There are two groups of vanadium steel alloys. Vanadium high-carbon steel alloys contain 0.15–0.25% vanadium, and <a href="/facts/High-speed_steel/6m6SCmof">high-speed tool steels</a> (HSS) have a vanadium content of 1–5%. For high-speed tool steels, a hardness above <a href="/facts/Rockwell_hardness/vU2b7TNT">HRC</a> 60 can be achieved. HSS steel is used in <a href="/facts/Surgical_instrument/GmWAzX7s">surgical instruments</a> and <a href="/facts/Tool/KhhEHz1I">tools</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> <a href="/facts/Powder_metallurgy/tv9uXamF">Powder-metallurgic</a> alloys contain up to 18% percent vanadium. The high content of vanadium carbides in those alloys increases wear resistance significantly. One application for those alloys is tools and knives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a>
Vanadium stabilizes the beta form of titanium and increases the strength and temperature stability of titanium. Mixed with <a href="/facts/Aluminium/7wmR8jYE">aluminium</a> in <a href="/facts/Titanium/53ArnDoy">titanium</a> alloys, it is used in <a href="/facts/Jet_engine/CJjFpeqt">jet engines</a>, high-speed airframes and <a href="/facts/Dental_implant/8eTEItJg">dental implants</a>. The most common alloy for seamless tubing is <a href="/facts/Titanium_alloy/cMFhSKSL">Titanium 3/2.5</a> containing 2.5% vanadium, the titanium alloy of choice in the aerospace, defense, and bicycle industries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> Another common alloy, primarily produced in sheets, is <a href="/facts/Titanium_6AL-4V/cMFhSKSL">Titanium 6AL-4V</a>, a titanium alloy with 6% aluminium and 4% vanadium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a>
Several vanadium alloys show <a href="/facts/Superconductivity/pqQAlSzJ">superconducting</a> behavior. The first <a href="/facts/A15_phase/I199cR4x">A15 phase</a> superconductor was a vanadium compound, V3Si, which was discovered in 1952.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a> <a href="/facts/Vanadium-gallium/sgT51LR2">Vanadium-gallium</a> tape is used in <a href="/facts/Superconductivity/pqQAlSzJ">superconducting</a> magnets (17.5 <a href="/facts/Tesla_(unit)/K6I5Stn9">teslas</a> or 175,000 <a href="/facts/Gauss_(unit)/Nar24Pgc">gauss</a>). The structure of the superconducting A15 phase of V3Ga is similar to that of the more common <a href="/facts/Niobium-tin/QnRWPr70">Nb3Sn</a> and <a href="/facts/Niobium-titanium/FXMYDvaW">Nb3Ti</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a>
It has been found that a small amount, 40 to 270 ppm, of vanadium in <a href="/facts/Wootz_steel/vVsqg46c">Wootz steel</a> significantly improved the strength of the product, and gave it the distinctive patterning. The source of the vanadium in the original Wootz steel ingots remains unknown.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a>
Vanadium can be used as a substitute for molybdenum in armor steel, though the alloy produced is far more brittle and prone to <a href="/facts/Spalling/4QwuMsPx">spalling</a> on non-penetrating impacts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a> The Third Reich was one of the most prominent users of such alloys, in armored vehicles like <a href="/facts/Tiger_II/0CI0J669">Tiger II</a> or <a href="/facts/Jagdtiger/MypuN2fS">Jagdtiger</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a>

<h3>Catalysts</h3>

Vanadium compounds are used extensively as catalysts;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a> <a href="/facts/Vanadium(V)_oxide/LPtvz4pq">Vanadium pentoxide</a> V2O5, is used as a <a href="/facts/Catalyst/LPBS7TQC">catalyst</a> in manufacturing sulfuric acid by the <a href="/facts/Contact_process/vNmmUQ3s">contact process</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> In this process <a href="/facts/Sulfur_dioxide/jDK1fIDs">sulfur dioxide</a> (SO2) is oxidized to the <a href="/facts/Sulfur_trioxide/Ijvm08Lq">trioxide</a> (SO3):<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> In this <a href="/facts/Redox_reaction/Pyd5RVcj">redox reaction</a>, sulfur is oxidized from +4 to +6, and vanadium is reduced from +5 to +4:

V2O5 + SO2 → 2 VO2 + SO3
The catalyst is regenerated by oxidation with air:

4 VO2 + O2 → 2 V2O5
Similar oxidations are used in the production of <a href="/facts/Maleic_anhydride/KfBTU8n4">maleic anhydride</a>:

C4H10 + 3.5 O2 → C4H2O3 + 4 H2O
<a href="/facts/Phthalic_anhydride/0naPEKVt">Phthalic anhydride</a> and several other bulk organic compounds are produced similarly. These <a href="/facts/Green_chemistry/7csVY28w">green chemistry</a> processes convert inexpensive feedstocks to highly functionalized, versatile intermediates.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a>
Vanadium is an important component of mixed metal oxide catalysts used in the oxidation of propane and propylene to <a href="/facts/Acrolein/1gdt9D3f">acrolein</a>, acrylic acid or the ammoxidation of propylene to <a href="/facts/Acrylonitrile/zvhfg050">acrylonitrile</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a>

<h3>Other uses</h3>
The <a href="/facts/Vanadium_redox_battery/y8VIzUJy">vanadium redox battery</a>, a type of <a href="/facts/Flow_battery/hxHFE9E6">flow battery</a>, is an electrochemical cell consisting of aqueous vanadium ions in different oxidation states.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> Batteries of this type were first proposed in the 1930s and developed commercially from the 1980s onwards. Cells use +5 and +2 formal oxidization state ions. Vanadium redox batteries are used commercially for <a href="/facts/Grid_energy_storage/SgYUxXkB">grid energy storage</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a>
<a href="/facts/Vanadate/hapXvTPr">Vanadate</a> can be used for protecting steel against rust and corrosion by <a href="/facts/Conversion_coating/Bz85cGHd">conversion coating</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a> Vanadium foil is used in <a href="/facts/Cladding_(metalworking)/CSJnnb4g">cladding</a> titanium to steel because it is compatible with both iron and titanium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a> The moderate <a href="/facts/Neutron_capture/elsFpM12">thermal neutron-capture cross-section</a> and the short half-life of the isotopes produced by neutron capture makes vanadium a suitable material for the inner structure of a <a href="/facts/Fusion_reactor/jyETSzm4">fusion reactor</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a>
Vanadium can be added in small quantities < 5% to <a href="/facts/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery/FQRNCjkl">LFP battery</a> cathodes to increase ionic conductivity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a>

<h4>Proposed</h4>
Lithium vanadium oxide has been proposed for use as a high-energy-density anode for <a href="/facts/Lithium-ion_battery/3L22xFhB">lithium-ion batteries</a>, at 745 Wh/L when paired with a <a href="/facts/Lithium_cobalt_oxide/0rFGLfCs">lithium cobalt oxide</a> cathode.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> <a href="/facts/Vanadium_phosphate/QWJvUa8j">Vanadium phosphates</a> have been proposed as the cathode in the <a href="/facts/Lithium_vanadium_phosphate_battery/JjoDrhvX">lithium vanadium phosphate battery</a>, another type of lithium-ion battery.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a>

<h2 id="biological-role">Biological role</h2>
Vanadium has a more significant role in marine environments than terrestrial ones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a>

<h3>Vanadoenzymes</h3>
Several species of marine <a href="/facts/Algae/U1ftVKU3">algae</a> produce <a href="/facts/Vanadium_bromoperoxidase/MMshlWxF">vanadium bromoperoxidase</a> as well as the closely related <a href="/facts/Chloroperoxidase/9uuHd7cW">chloroperoxidase</a> (which may use a <a href="/facts/Heme/fRhyJAAb">heme</a> or vanadium cofactor) and <a href="/facts/Iodoperoxidase/Ga1ExEn4">iodoperoxidases</a>. The bromoperoxidase produces an estimated 1–2 million tons of <a href="/facts/Bromoform/jhmbBrtg">bromoform</a> and 56,000 tons of <a href="/facts/Bromomethane/swSGzwnr">bromomethane</a> annually.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> Most naturally occurring <a href="/facts/Organobromine_compound/7v9NP0Ak">organobromine compounds</a> are produced by this enzyme,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> catalyzing the following reaction (R-H is hydrocarbon substrate):

R-H + Br− + H2O2 → R-Br + H2O + OH−
A <a href="/facts/Vanadium_nitrogenase/dDYxDEuF">vanadium nitrogenase</a> is used by some <a href="/facts/Nitrogen_fixation/TeLoBpWS">nitrogen-fixing</a> micro-organisms, such as <a href="/facts/Azotobacter/sL6e2WTw">Azotobacter</a>. In this role, vanadium serves in place of the more common <a href="/facts/Molybdenum/RX6vp2bF">molybdenum</a> or <a href="/facts/Iron/QK1JYy8E">iron</a>, and gives the <a href="/facts/Nitrogenase/gIhxgCaL">nitrogenase</a> slightly different properties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a>

<h3>Vanadium accumulation in tunicates</h3>
Vanadium is essential to <a href="/facts/Tunicate/9e4penn8">tunicates</a>, where it is stored in the highly acidified <a href="/facts/Vacuole/9QjBVb7j">vacuoles</a> of certain blood cell types, designated <a href="/facts/Vanadocyte/LxdYll6c">vanadocytes</a>. <a href="/facts/Vanabins/Em5m9DlE">Vanabins</a> (vanadium-binding proteins) have been identified in the cytoplasm of such cells. The concentration of vanadium in the blood of <a href="/facts/Ascidiacea/Vkqqavut">ascidian</a> tunicates is as much as ten million times higher[specify]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> than the surrounding seawater, which normally contains 1 to 2 μg/L.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a> The function of this vanadium concentration system and these vanadium-bearing proteins is still unknown, but the vanadocytes are later deposited just under the outer surface of the tunic, where they may deter <a href="/facts/Predation/JEGdrX3f">predation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a>

<h3>Fungi</h3>
<a href="/facts/Amanita_muscaria/2VybE2L2">Amanita muscaria</a> and related species of macrofungi accumulate vanadium (up to 500 mg/kg in dry weight). Vanadium is present in the <a href="/facts/Coordination_complex/1tCyeQUm">coordination complex</a> <a href="/facts/Amavadin/9gUENXN5">amavadin</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a> in fungal fruit-bodies. The biological importance of the accumulation is unknown.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a> Toxic or <a href="/facts/Peroxidase/pEgHpmCV">peroxidase</a> enzyme functions have been suggested.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a>

<h3>Mammals</h3>
Deficiencies in vanadium result in reduced growth in rats.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a> The U.S. Institute of Medicine has not confirmed that vanadium is an essential nutrient for humans, so neither a Recommended Dietary Intake nor an Adequate Intake have been established. Dietary intake is estimated at 6 to 18 μg/day, with less than 5% absorbed. The <a href="/facts/Tolerable_upper_intake_level/FWaI93Dm">Tolerable Upper Intake Level</a> (UL) of dietary vanadium, beyond which adverse effects may occur, is set at 1.8 mg/day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a>

<h3>Research</h3>
<a href="/facts/Vanadyl_sulfate/Njels7KD">Vanadyl sulfate</a> as a dietary supplement has been researched as a means of increasing insulin sensitivity or otherwise improving glycemic control in people who are diabetic. Some of the trials had significant treatment effects but were deemed as being of poor study quality. The amounts of vanadium used in these trials (30 to 150 mg) far exceeded the safe upper limit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a> The conclusion of the systemic review was "There is no rigorous evidence that oral vanadium supplementation improves glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes. The routine use of vanadium for this purpose cannot be recommended."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a>
In <a href="/facts/Astrobiology/GS1tFhrf">astrobiology</a>, it has been suggested that discrete vanadium accumulations on <a href="/facts/Mars/AQGtVvz0">Mars</a> could be a potential microbial <a href="/facts/Biosignature/vaG06nRB">biosignature</a> when used in conjunction with <a href="/facts/Raman_spectroscopy/XY063k29">Raman spectroscopy</a> and morphology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a>

<h2 id="safety">Safety</h2>
All vanadium compounds should be considered toxic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a> Tetravalent <a href="/facts/Vanadyl_sulfate/Njels7KD">VOSO4</a> has been reported to be at least 5 times more toxic than trivalent V2O3.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a> The US <a href="/facts/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration/dCGbW5Ax">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a> (OSHA) has set an exposure limit of 0.05 mg/m3 for vanadium pentoxide dust and 0.1 mg/m3 for vanadium pentoxide fumes in workplace air for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour work week.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a> The US <a href="/facts/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health/5WjdDNMN">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (NIOSH) has recommended that 35 mg/m3 of vanadium be considered immediately dangerous to life and health, that is, likely to cause permanent health problems or death.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a>
Vanadium compounds are poorly absorbed through the gastrointestinal system. Inhalation of vanadium and vanadium compounds results primarily in adverse effects on the respiratory system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a> Quantitative data are, however, insufficient to derive a subchronic or chronic inhalation reference dose. Other effects have been reported after oral or inhalation exposures on blood parameters,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a> liver,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a> neurological development,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a> and other organs<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> in rats.
There is little evidence that vanadium or vanadium compounds are reproductive toxins or <a href="/facts/Teratogen/j4BN6lsB">teratogens</a>. Vanadium pentoxide was reported to be carcinogenic in male rats and in male and female mice by inhalation in an NTP study,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a> although the interpretation of the results has been disputed a few years after the report.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a> The carcinogenicity of vanadium has not been determined by the <a href="/facts/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency/ghI985SI">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a>
Vanadium traces in <a href="/facts/Diesel_fuel/lm71xc19">diesel fuels</a> are the main fuel component in <a href="/facts/High_temperature_corrosion/paXlMyYF">high temperature corrosion</a>. During combustion, vanadium oxidizes and reacts with sodium and sulfur, yielding <a href="/facts/Vanadate/hapXvTPr">vanadate</a> compounds with melting points as low as 530 °C (986 °F), which attack the <a href="/facts/Passivation_(chemistry)/tPADJj5G">passivation layer</a> on steel and render it susceptible to corrosion. The solid vanadium compounds also abrade engine components.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Flow_battery/hxHFE9E6">Flow battery</a> – Type of electrochemical cell</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Green_Giant_mine/R85JFkTb">Green Giant mine</a> – Vanadium mine in Madagascar</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Grid_energy_storage/SgYUxXkB">Grid energy storage</a> – Large scale electricity supply management</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vanadium_carbide/gV5W36wL">Vanadium carbide</a> – Extremely hard refractory ceramic material</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vanadium_redox_battery/y8VIzUJy">Vanadium redox battery</a> – Type of rechargeable flow battery</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vanadium_tetrachloride/evQC8Yzp">Vanadium tetrachloride</a> – Chemical reagent used to produce other vanadium compounds</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vanadium(V)_oxide/LPtvz4pq">Vanadium(V) oxide</a> – Precursor to vanadium alloys and industrial catalyst</li>
<li><a href="/facts/International_Vanadium_Symposium/FEJNfu7C">International Vanadium Symposium</a> – Biennial interdisciplinary event</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vanadium_cycle/QuanlQfg">Vanadium cycle</a> – Exchange of vanadium between continental crust and seawater</li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li>Slebodnick, Carla; et al. (1999). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZF5aNOeHd5sC&pg=PA51">"Modeling the Biological Chemistry of Vanadium: Structural and Reactivity Studies Elucidating Biological Function"</a>. In Hill, Hugh A.O.; et al. (eds.). Metal sites in proteins and models: phosphatases, Lewis acids, and vanadium. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-540-65553-4.</li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

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<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Vanadium">"Vanadium" </a>. <a href="/facts/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/CEyVsjlN">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. XXIV (9th ed.). 1888. p. 54.</li>
<li><a href="http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/023.htm">Vanadium</a> at <a href="/facts/The_Periodic_Table_of_Videos/vC5kbN0M">The Periodic Table of Videos</a> (University of Nottingham)</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

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</ol>

Vanadium open-in-new

Vanadium