Human-centered design

<h2 id="development">Development</h2>
Human-centered design has its origins at the intersection of numerous fields including engineering, psychology, anthropology and the arts. As an approach to creative problem-solving in technical and business fields its origins are often traced to the founding of the <a href="/facts/Stanford_Joint_Program_in_Design/VWxCbdwX">Stanford University design program</a> in 1958 by Professor <a href="/facts/John_E._Arnold/kqGVIsn5">John E. Arnold</a> who first proposed the idea that engineering design should be human-centered. This work coincided with the rise of creativity techniques and the subsequent design methods movement in the 1960s. Since then, as creative design processes and methods have been increasingly popularized for business purposes, the standardized and defined human-centered design is mistakenly equated with the vaguely outlined "<a href="/facts/Design_thinking/8a481c2b">design thinking</a>".
In Architect or Bee?, <a href="/facts/Mike_Cooley_(engineer)/6ppNS4NE">Mike Cooley</a> coined the term "human-centered systems" in the context of the transition in his profession from traditional drafting at a <a href="/facts/Drawing_board/sov3qmCw">drawing board</a> to <a href="/facts/Computer-aided_design/5gSXrmmN">computer-aided design</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a> Human-centered systems,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> as used in economics, computing and design, aim to preserve or enhance human skills, in both manual and office work, in environments in which technology tends to undermine the skills that people use in their work.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a>

<blockquote>Human centeredness asserts firstly, that we must always put people before machines, however complex or elegant that machine might be, and, secondly, it marvels and delights at the ability and ingenuity of human beings. The Human Centered Systems movement looks sensitively at these forms of science and technology which meet our cultural, historical and societal requirements, and seeks to develop more appropriate forms of technology to meet our long-term aspirations. In the Human Centered System, there exists a symbiotic relation between the human and the machine, in which the human being would handle the qualitative subjective judgements and the machine the quantitative elements. It involves a radical redesign of the interface technologies and at a philosophical level, the objective is to provide tools (in the Heidegger sense) which would support human skill and ingenuity rather than machines which would objectivise that knowledge— <a href="/facts/Mike_Cooley_(engineer)/6ppNS4NE">Mike Cooley</a>, "On Human-Machine Symbiosis", 2008<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a></blockquote>
<h2 id="user-participation">User participation</h2>

The user-oriented framework relies heavily on user participation and user feedback in the planning process.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> Users are able to provide new perspective and ideas, which can be considered in a new round of improvements and changes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> It is said that increased user participation in the design process can garner a more comprehensive understanding of the design issues, due to more contextual and emotional transparency between researcher and participant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> A key element of human centered design is applied ethnography, which is a research method adopted from <a href="/facts/Cultural_anthropology/6WK5EDeu">cultural anthropology</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> This research method requires researchers to be fully immersed in the observation so that implicit details are also recorded.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> 

<h2 id="rationale-for-adoption">Rationale for adoption</h2>
Even after decades of thought on Human Centered Design, management and finance systems still believe that "another's liability is one's asset" could be true of porous human bodies, embedded in nature and inseparable from each other. On the contrary, our biological and ecological interconnections ensure that "another's liability is our liability". Sustainable business systems can only emerge if these biological and ecological interconnections are accepted and accounted for.
Using a human-centered approach to design and development has substantial economic and social benefits for users, employers and suppliers. Highly usable systems and products tend to be more successful both technically and commercially. In some areas, such as consumer products, purchasers will pay a premium for well-designed products and systems. Support and help-desk costs are reduced when users can understand and use products without additional assistance. In most countries, employers and suppliers have legal obligations to protect users from risks to their health, and safety and human-centered methods can reduce these risks (e.g. musculoskeletal risks). Systems designed using human-centered methods improve quality, for example, by:

<ul><li>increasing the productivity of users and the operational efficiency of organizations</li>
<li>being easier to understand and use, thus reducing training and support costs</li>
<li>increasing usability for people with a wider range of capabilities and thus increasing accessibility</li>
<li>improving user experience</li>
<li>reducing discomfort and stress</li>
<li>providing a competitive advantage, for example by improving brand image</li>
<li>contributing towards sustainability objectives</li></ul>
Human-centered design may be utilized in multiple fields, including sociological sciences and technology. It has been noted for its ability to consider human dignity, access, and ability roles when developing solutions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> Because of this, human-centered design may more fully incorporate culturally sound, human-informed, and appropriate solutions to problems in a variety of fields rather than solely product and technology-based fields. Because human-centered design focuses on the human experience, researchers and designers can address "issues of social justice and inclusion and encourage ethical, reflexive design."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>
Human-centered design arises from underlying principles of human factors. When it comes to those two concepts, they are quite interconnected; human factors are about discovering the attributes of human cognition and behavior that are important for making technology work for people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> It is what allows humans as a species to innovate over time.[dubious – discuss] Human-centered design was used to discover that Blackberries have less human usability than an iPhone and that important controls on a panel that look too similar will be easily confused and may cause an increased risk of human error.
An important distinction between human-centered design and any other form of design is that human-centered design is not just about aesthetics, and is not always designing for interfaces. It could be designing for controls in the world, tasks in the world, hardware, decision-making, or cognition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> For instance, if a nurse is too tired from a long shift, they might confuse the pumps through which might be administered a bag of penicillin to a patient. In this case, the human-centered design would encompass a task redesign, a possible institute policy redesign, and an equipment redesign.
Typically, human-centered design is more focused on "methodologies and techniques for interacting with people in such a manner as to facilitate the detection of meanings, desires and needs, either by verbal or non-verbal means."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> In contrast, <a href="/facts/User-centered_design/1qLwIbSw">user-centered design</a> is another approach and framework of processes which considers the human role in product use, but focuses largely on the production of interactive technology designed around the user's physical attributes rather than social problem-solving.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>

<h2 id="human-centered-design-approach-in-health">Human-centered design approach in Health</h2>
In the context of health-seeking behaviors, Human Centered Design can be used to understand why people do or do not seek out <a href="/facts/Health_services/LPS1WKbI">health services</a>, even when those services are available and affordable. Human centered design is a powerful tool for improving health-seeking behaviors. This understanding can then be used to develop interventions to address the barriers and promote desired behaviors. Demand-related challenges associated with the acceptability, responsiveness, and quality of services can be addressed by working directly with users to understand their needs and perspectives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> HCD can help in designing interventions that are more likely to be effective. The integration of the principle of Human Centered Design and anti-racism practices can help in addressing existing health disparities present in the healthcare system, and can help to center the needs of people who being to marginalized communities. This type of design can create fair and equitable health outcomes for marginalized communities, who are often left out due to unmet needs. Researchers who apply Human Centered design are thoughtfully approaching the needs of populations who are traditionally excluded, therefore dismantling oppressive systems which previously or have continued to reinforce structural racism. <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>

<h2 id="critiques">Critiques</h2>
Human-centered design has been both lauded and criticised for its ability to actively solve problems with affected communities. Criticisms include the inability of human-centered design to push the boundaries of available technology by solely tailoring to the demands of present-day solutions, rather than focus on possible future solutions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> In addition, human-centered design often considers context, but does not offer tailored approaches for very specific groups of people. New research on innovative approaches include youth-centered health design, which focuses on youth as the central aspect with particular needs and limitations not always addressed by human-centered design approaches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> Nevertheless, human-centered design that doesn't reflect very specific groups of users and their needs is human-centered design poorly executed, since the principles of human-system interaction require the reflection of those specified needs.
Whilst users are very important for some types of innovation (namely incremental innovation), focusing too much on the user may result in producing an outdated or no longer necessary product or service. This is because the insights that you achieve from studying the user today are insights that are related to the users of today and the environment she or he lives in today. If your solution will be available only two or three years from now, your user may have developed new preferences, wants and needs by then.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a>

<h2 id="modern-advances-in-human-centered-design">Modern Advances in Human-Centered Design</h2>
<h3>Human-Centered Design with Artificial Intelligence</h3>
Human-Centered AI (HCAI) is a methodical approach to AI system design that prioritizes human values and requirements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> This method places a strong emphasis on boosting human self-efficacy, encouraging innovation, guaranteeing accountability, and promoting social interaction. By putting these human goals first, HCAI also tackles important concerns like privacy, security, environmental preservation, social justice, and human rights. This represents a dramatic change from an algorithmic approach to a human-centered system design, which has been compared to a second <a href="/facts/Copernican_Revolution/cthYYtBg">Copernican Revolution</a>.
HCAI introduces a two-dimensional framework that demonstrates the possibility of combining high levels of human control with high levels of automation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> This framework suggests a move away from viewing AI as autonomous teammates, instead positioning AI as powerful tools and tele-operated devices that empower users.
Furthermore, HCAI proposes a three-level governance structure to enhance the reliability and trustworthiness of AI systems. At the first level, software engineering teams are encouraged to develop robust and dependable systems. At the second level, managers are urged to cultivate a safety culture across their organizations. At the third level, industry-wide certification can help establish standards that promote trustworthy HCAI systems.
These concepts are designed to be dynamic, inviting challenge, refinement, and extension to accommodate new technologies. They aim to reframe design discussions for AI products and services, offering an opportunity to restart and reshape these conversations. The ultimate goal is to deliver greater benefits to individuals, families, communities, businesses, and society, ensuring that AI developments align with human values and societal goals

<h3>Integration of Human-Centered Design and Community Based Participatory Research</h3>
By joining two people-centered approaches, Human-Centered Design (HCD) and Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR) offer a fresh way to tackle challenging real-world issues. While <a href="/facts/CBPR/CwWWfjWq">CBPR</a> has been used in academic and community partnerships to address health inequities through social action and empowerment, HCD has historically been used in the business sector to guide the creation of products and services.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> Although the public sector has just started using HCD concepts to inform public policy, more research is still needed to fully understand its cycle and how it might be strategically applied to health promotion. By combining CBPR's emphasis on community trust and collaboration with HCD's emphasis on user-centric design, this integration provides a complimentary approach. The potential of these approaches to improve public health outcomes is demonstrated by CBPR initiatives, such as those that try to lower the spread of STIs and improve handwashing among farmworkers. The combined strategy can result in more lasting and successful health interventions by addressing pertinent concerns, establishing partnerships, and involving community members.

<h3>Human-Centered Design in SEIPS 3.0</h3>
In order to improve quality and safety in healthcare, Human Factors and Ergonomics (<a href="/facts/Human_factors_and_ergonomics/prAcGtDW">HFE</a>) are integrated using the Systems Engineering Initiative for Patient Safety (SEIPS) models. These models are based on a human-centered design approach, which gives patients' and healthcare practitioners' wants and experiences top priority when designing systems. By extending the "process" component to handle the intricacies of contemporary healthcare delivery, SEIPS 3.0 builds upon this.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a>
The idea of the patient journey is introduced by the SEIPS 3.0 model as healthcare becomes more dispersed across different locations and eras. This journey-centric approach emphasizes a comprehensive view of patients' experiences over time by mapping their contacts with various care venues. By emphasizing the patient journey, SEIPS 3.0 emphasizes how crucial it is to create systems that can adapt to patients' changing demands in order to provide seamless, secure, and encouraging care.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>
In order to implement human-centered design in SEIPS 3.0, HFE professionals must take into account a variety of viewpoints and encourage sincere involvement from all parties involved, including patients, caregivers, and medical professionals. In order to increase interactions across various healthcare settings and capture the intricacies of patient experiences, this approach calls for creative techniques. By putting people first, SEIPS 3.0 seeks to develop healthcare systems that improve the general happiness and well-being of both patients and caregivers in addition to preventing harm

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/User-centered_design/1qLwIbSw">User-centered design</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Design_thinking/8a481c2b">Design thinking</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Human-Centered_Artificial_Intelligence/C8u8f7GG">Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Humanistic_economics/Gcj4QfEt">Humanistic economics</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<h3>International Standards</h3>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.iso.org/standard/21197.html">ISO 13407:1999 Human-centred design processes for interactive systems – Now Withdrawn</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=52075">ISO 9241-210:2010 Ergonomics of human-system interaction – Part 210: Human-centred design for interactive systems – Now Withdrawn</a></li>
<li><a href="https://www.iso.org/standard/77520.html">ISO 9241-210:2019 Ergonomics of human-system interaction – Part 210: Human-centred design for interactive systems – UPDATED 2019</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Innovating for people: the Handbook of human-centered design methods. Pittsburgh, PA: LUMA Institute. 2012. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Cooley, Mike (1982). Architect or Bee?. South End Press. <a href="/wiki/Mike_Cooley_(engineer)" target="_blank">/wiki/Mike_Cooley_(engineer)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Cooley, Mike (1982). Architect or Bee?. South End Press. <a href="/wiki/Mike_Cooley_(engineer)" target="_blank">/wiki/Mike_Cooley_(engineer)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Cooley, Mike (1989). "Human-centred Systems". Designing Human-centred Technology. The Springer Series on Artificial Intelligence and Society. pp. 133–143. doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-1717-9_10. ISBN 978-3-540-19567-2. <a href="978-3-540-19567-2" target="_blank">978-3-540-19567-2</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">John Bellamy Foster; Harry Braverman (1998). Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the 20th Century. Monthly Review Press. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Philip Kraft (1977). Programmers and Managers: The Routinization of Computer Programmers in the United States. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Mike Cooley (1989). "Designing Human-centered Technology: A Cross-disciplinary Project in Computer-aided Manufacturing". In Howard Rosenbrock (ed.). Human-centered systems. London: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-19567-2. <a href="978-3-540-19567-2" target="_blank">978-3-540-19567-2</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Cooley, M. (2008). "On Human-Machine Symbiosis". In Gill, S. (ed.). Cognition, Communication and Interaction. Human-Computer Interaction Series. London: Springer. pp. 457–485. ISBN 978-1-84628-926-2. <a href="978-1-84628-926-2" target="_blank">978-1-84628-926-2</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Del'Era, Claudio; Landoni, Paolo (June 2014). "Living Lab: A Methodology between User Centered Design and Participatory Design". Creativity and Innovation Management. 23 (2): 137–154. doi:10.1111/caim.12061. hdl:11311/959178. S2CID 153640858.[permanent dead link‍] <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Del'Era, Claudio; Landoni, Paolo (June 2014). "Living Lab: A Methodology between User Centered Design and Participatory Design". Creativity and Innovation Management. 23 (2): 137–154. doi:10.1111/caim.12061. hdl:11311/959178. S2CID 153640858.[permanent dead link‍] <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Del'Era, Claudio; Landoni, Paolo (June 2014). "Living Lab: A Methodology between User Centered Design and Participatory Design". Creativity and Innovation Management. 23 (2): 137–154. doi:10.1111/caim.12061. hdl:11311/959178. S2CID 153640858.[permanent dead link‍] <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Del'Era, Claudio; Landoni, Paolo (June 2014). "Living Lab: A Methodology between User Centered Design and Participatory Design". Creativity and Innovation Management. 23 (2): 137–154. doi:10.1111/caim.12061. hdl:11311/959178. S2CID 153640858.[permanent dead link‍] <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Del'Era, Claudio; Landoni, Paolo (June 2014). "Living Lab: A Methodology between User Centered Design and Participatory Design". Creativity and Innovation Management. 23 (2): 137–154. doi:10.1111/caim.12061. hdl:11311/959178. S2CID 153640858.[permanent dead link‍] <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Buchanan, R. (2001). "Human dignity and human rights: Thoughts on the principles of human-centered design". Design Issues. 17 (3): 35–39. doi:10.1162/074793601750357178. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Jones, Natasha N. (2016). "Narrative Inquiry in Human-Centered Design: Examining Silence and Voice to Promote Social Justice in Design Scenarios". Journal of Technical Writing and Communication. 46 (4). Sage: 471–492. doi:10.1177/0047281616653489. S2CID 147708023. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Lee, John D.; Wickens, Christopher D.; Liu, Yili; Boyle, Linda Ng (2017). Designing for People: An introduction to human factors engineering. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1539808008. <a href="978-1539808008" target="_blank">978-1539808008</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Lee, John D.; Wickens, Christopher D.; Liu, Yili; Boyle, Linda Ng (2017). Designing for People: An introduction to human factors engineering. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1539808008. <a href="978-1539808008" target="_blank">978-1539808008</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Giacomin, J. (2014). "What Is Human Centered Design?". The Design Journal. 17 (4): 606–623. doi:10.2752/175630614X14056185480186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Abras, C.; Maloney-Krichmar, D.; Preece, J. (2004). "User-centered design". In Bainbridge, W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction. Vol. 37. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. pp. 445–456. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">"HCD for Health Homepage". UNICEF Human Centered Design 4 Health. Archived from the original on November 20, 2023. Retrieved October 16, 2023 – via www.hcd4health.org. <a href="https://www.hcd4health.org/" target="_blank">https://www.hcd4health.org/</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Stiles-Shields, Colleen; Cummings, Caroline; Montague, Enid; Plevinsky, Jill M.; Psihogios, Alexandra M.; Williams, Kofoworola D. A. (April 25, 2022). "A Call to Action: Using and Extending Human-Centered Design Methodologies to Improve Mental and Behavioral Health Equity". Frontiers in Digital Health. 4. doi:10.3389/fdgth.2022.848052. ISSN 2673-253X. PMC 9081673. PMID 35547091. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9081673" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9081673</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Norman, Donald A. (2005). "Human-Centered Design Considered Harmful". Interactions (essay). 12 (4). CACM: 14–19. doi:10.1145/1070960.1070976. Archived from the original on January 18, 2007. Retrieved April 15, 2017 – via www.jnd.org. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070118193628/http://www.jnd.org/dn.mss/human-centered.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070118193628/http://www.jnd.org/dn.mss/human-centered.html</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">"Trauma-Informed Youth-Centered Health Design". YTH – youth + tech + health. Retrieved November 20, 2023. <a href="https://yth.org/projects/tiychd/" target="_blank">https://yth.org/projects/tiychd/</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:25">Shneiderman, Ben (September 30, 2020). "Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence: Three Fresh Ideas". AIS Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction. 12 (3): 109–124. doi:10.17705/1thci.00131. ISSN 1944-3900. <a href="https://aisel.aisnet.org/thci/vol12/iss3/1/" target="_blank">https://aisel.aisnet.org/thci/vol12/iss3/1/</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:27">Carayon, Pascale; Wooldridge, Abigail; Hoonakker, Peter; Hundt, Ann Schoofs; Kelly, Michelle M. (April 2020). "SEIPS 3.0: Human-centered design of the patient journey for patient safety". Applied Ergonomics. 84: 103033. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2019.103033. PMC 7152782. PMID 31987516. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7152782" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7152782</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Carayon, Pascale; Wooldridge, Abigail; Hoonakker, Peter; Hundt, Ann Schoofs; Kelly, Michelle M. (April 1, 2020). "SEIPS 3.0: Human-centered design of the patient journey for patient safety". Applied Ergonomics. 84: 103033. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2019.103033. ISSN 0003-6870. PMC 7152782. PMID 31987516. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7152782" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7152782</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Carayon, Pascale; Wooldridge, Abigail; Hoonakker, Peter; Hundt, Ann Schoofs; Kelly, Michelle M. (April 1, 2020). "SEIPS 3.0: Human-centered design of the patient journey for patient safety". Applied Ergonomics. 84: 103033. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2019.103033. ISSN 0003-6870. PMC 7152782. PMID 31987516. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7152782" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7152782</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Human-centered design open-in-new

Human-centered design