Operation Source

<h2 id="attack">Attack</h2>
Six X-craft were used. X5, X6 and X7 were allocated the battleship Tirpitz, in <a href="/facts/K%C3%A5fjord,_Alta/XIHx9CIl">Kåfjord</a>. X9 and X10 were to attack the battleship Scharnhorst, also in Kåfjord. X8 was to attack the heavy cruiser Lützow in <a href="/facts/Langfjorden_(Alta)/XeRVnVJd">Langfjord</a>.
The submersibles were towed to the area by conventional submarines (<a href="/facts/HMS_Truculent_(P315)/569gPFDY">HMS Truculent</a> (X6)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> <a href="/facts/HMS_Syrtis_(P241)/Ir5rPoXz">Syrtis</a> (X9),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> <a href="/facts/HMS_Sea_Nymph_(P223)/HScSxen9">Sea Nymph</a> (X8),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> <a href="/facts/HMS_Thrasher_(N37)/tgdYjTBz">Thrasher</a> (X5),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> <a href="/facts/HMS_Stubborn/1Xj5L19P">Stubborn</a> (X7),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> and <a href="/facts/HMS_Sceptre_(P215)/lRIhJjSW">Sceptre</a> (X10)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a>) and manned by passage crews on the way. Close to the target, the operation crews would take over.
X9, probably trimmed heavily by the bow in the heavy sea for the tow, was lost with all three crew on the passage when her tow parted and she suffered an abrupt plunge due to her bow-down trim.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>X8 (passage crew commanded by Lieutenant <a href="/facts/John_Elliott_Smart/9nwj0sG9">Jack Smart</a>) developed serious leaks in her side-mounted demolition charges, which had to be jettisoned; these exploded, leaving her so damaged she had to be <a href="/facts/Scuttling/kDeqTHM7">scuttled</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a>
The remaining X-craft began their run in on 20 September, and the attacks took place on 22 September 1943 starting at 7:00 pm (1900 hours) that evening. Scharnhorst was engaged in exercises at the time, and hence was not at her normal mooring, X10's attack was abandoned due to mechanical and navigation problems, and the submarine returned to rendezvous with her 'tug' submarine. X10 was scuttled on the way back to Scotland when the tow rope broke.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>

X5, commanded by Lieutenant Henty-Creer, disappeared with her crew during Source. She is believed to have been sunk by a direct hit from one of Tirpitz's 105-millimetre (4.1 in) guns before placing demolition charges. There was a possibility X5 had also successfully planted side charges before being destroyed, but this was never conclusively proven.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> An expedition jointly run by the late Carl Spencer (Britannic 2003), Bill Smith (Bluebird Project) and the Royal Navy using the mine hunters <a href="/facts/HMS_Quorn_(M41)/Jr4TaLgN">HMS Quorn</a> and <a href="/facts/Romanian_minehunter_Sublocotenent_Ion_Ghiculescu/oFXybKnb">HMS Blyth</a> in 2006 mapped the north and south anchorages used by Tirpitz and proved the charge was well inside the net enclosure of the north anchorage and therefore most likely from X6.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>
X6 and X7 managed to drop their charges under Tirpitz, but were unable to escape as they were observed and attacked. Both were abandoned and six crewmen captured. Upon capture, the crewmen informed the German captain Hans Meyer that there would be explosions under Tirpitz within an hour. Meyer quickly attempted to move the ship away from the charges, but was unable to do so before the charges exploded.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a>

<h2 id="damage">Damage</h2>
Tirpitz was heavily damaged. While not in danger of sinking, she took on over 1,400 tons<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> of water and suffered significant mechanical damage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> The first mine exploded abreast of turret Caesar, and the second mine detonated 45 to 55 m (148 to 180 ft) off the port bow.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> A fuel oil tank was ruptured, shell plating was torn, a large indentation was made in the bottom of the ship, and bulkheads in the <a href="/facts/Double_bottom/zn1r61ud">double bottom</a> buckled. Some 1,430 t (1,410 long tons) of water flooded the ship in fuel tanks and void spaces in the double bottom of the port side, which caused a <a href="/facts/List_(watercraft)/QpEGLEpg">list</a> of one to two degrees, which was balanced by counter-flooding on the starboard side. The flooding damaged all of the turbo-generators in generator room No. 2, and all apart from one generator in generator room No. 1 were disabled by broken steam lines or severed power cables. Turret Dora was thrown from its bearings and could not be rotated; this was particularly significant, as there were no heavy-lift cranes in Norway powerful enough to lift the turret and place it back on its bearings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> The ship's two <a href="/facts/Arado_Ar_196/U8rVAzLX">Arado Ar 196</a> floatplanes were thrown by the explosive concussion and completely destroyed. 
Repairs were conducted by the repair ship <a href="/facts/German_auxiliary_cruiser_Widder/u2K1sLrn">Neumark</a>; historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin remarked that the successful repair effort was "one of the most notable feats of naval engineering during the Second World War."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> Repairs lasted until 2 April 1944; full-speed trials were scheduled for the following day in Altafjord.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>
Just after repairs concluded, Tirpitz was damaged by British carrier-launched dive bombers in <a href="/facts/Operation_Tungsten/WfTYev37">Operation Tungsten</a> on 3 April 1944. On 12 November 1944, the ship was sunk by <a href="/facts/Avro_Lancaster/9ndbwh9b">Avro Lancaster</a> bombers in <a href="/facts/Operation_Catechism/lwmq8wDf">Operation Catechism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a>

<h2 id="x-craft-and-crews">X-craft and crews</h2>

<ul><li>X-5: Unofficially named Platypus,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> Passage crew Lt Terry-Lloyd, L. Seaman Element and Stoker (1st Class) Garrity, operational crew Lt Henty-Creer, Sub-Lt Malcolm, Sub-Lt Nelson and ER Artificer (<a href="/facts/Engine_Room_Artificer/5Fe7XnMH">Engine Room Artificer</a>, i.e. engineer) Mortiboys.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> Henty-Creer, Nelson, Malcolm, and Mortiboys were killed in the attack, though X-5's exact fate is unknown.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a></li>
<li>X-6: Named Piker II,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> Passage crew Lt Wilson, L. Seaman McGregor and Stoker (1st Class) Oakley, operational crew Lt <a href="/facts/Donald_Cameron_(VC)/vAp7RJCC">Donald Cameron</a>, Sub-Lt Lorimer, Sub-Lt Kendall and ER Artificer Goddard. <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> Cameron earned a <a href="/facts/Victoria_Cross/abfXKEQl">Victoria Cross</a> (VC), Lorimer and Kendall the <a href="/facts/Distinguished_Service_Order/lftymFNY">Distinguished Service Order</a> (DSO), Goddard a <a href="/facts/Conspicuous_Gallantry_Medal/6smpURXM">Conspicuous Gallantry Medal</a> (CGM).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a></li>
<li>X-7: Unofficially named Pdinichthys,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> Passage crew Lt Philip, Able Seaman <a href="/facts/James_Joseph_Magennis/jyuz9Hvp">James Joseph Magennis</a> and Stoker (1st Class) Luck, operational crew Lt <a href="/facts/Godfrey_Place/aW1rzHVK">Godfrey Place</a>, Sub-Lt Whittam, Sub-Lt Aitken and ER Artificer Whitley.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> Place also earned a VC, Aitken the DSO, while Philip was appointed a <a href="/facts/Member_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire/HlY9buuN">Member of the Order of the British Empire</a> (MBE); Whittam and Whitley were killed as they were unable to exit the craft when it sank.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a></li>
<li>X-8: Passage crew Lt Smart, L. Seaman Pomeroy and Stoker (1st Class) Robinson, operational crew Lt McFarlane, Lt Marsden, Sub-Lt Hindmarsh and ER Artificer Murray.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> X-8 was scuttled on 18 September 1943,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> after being verified she could now serve no useful purpose in the operation due to water leaking into the side charges.</li>
<li>X-9: Passage crew Sub-Lt Edward Kearon, Able Seaman Harry Harte and Stoker George Hollett, operational crew Lt Martin, Sub-Lt Brooks, Lt Shean and ER Artificer Coles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> Kearon, Harte and Hollet died when it foundered on 16 September 1943 after the tow rope parted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a></li>
<li>X-10: Unofficially named Excalibur. Passage crew Sub-Lt Page, Petty Officer Brookes and ER Artificer Fishleigh, operational crew Lt Hudspeth, Sub-Lt Enzer, Sub-Lt Harding and ER Artificer Tilley.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> X-10 was scuttled on 23 September 1943 (after rendezvousing with her parent submarine and recovering the crew), because the chances of her being able to be towed home in a heavy gale were very slight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a></li></ul>
For this action, the commanders of the craft, <a href="/facts/Lieutenant/G9BbvD6s">Lieutenants</a> <a href="/facts/Donald_Cameron_(VC)/vAp7RJCC">Donald Cameron</a> (X6) and <a href="/facts/Basil_Charles_Godfrey_Place/aW1rzHVK">Basil Place</a> (X7), were awarded the <a href="/facts/Victoria_Cross/abfXKEQl">Victoria Cross</a>, whilst Robert Aitken, Richard Haddon Kendall, and John Thornton Lorimer received the <a href="/facts/Distinguished_Service_Order/lftymFNY">Distinguished Service Order</a> and Edmund Goddard the <a href="/facts/Conspicuous_Gallantry_Medal/6smpURXM">Conspicuous Gallantry Medal</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> The commander of X8, <a href="/facts/John_Elliott_Smart/9nwj0sG9">John Elliott Smart</a>, was appointed a <a href="/facts/Member_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire/HlY9buuN">Member of the Order of the British Empire</a> (MBE).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> Henty-Creer of X5 was not decorated, but was mentioned in dispatches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a>

<h2 id="in-popular-culture">In popular culture</h2>
<ul><li>The operation was later portrayed in the <a href="/facts/1955_in_film/cHUkHNjy">1955</a> war film <a href="/facts/Above_Us_the_Waves_(film)/VtuR0qQU">Above Us the Waves</a>, featuring <a href="/facts/John_Mills/2FJXBTTY">John Mills</a>, which was based on both Operation "Source" and the earlier <a href="/facts/Operation_Title/guUeXQWl">Operation Title</a> <a href="/facts/Human_torpedo/wmmcG7Ns">human torpedo</a> attack on Tirpitz.</li>
<li>The <a href="/facts/1969_in_film/mcMG449B">1969</a> war film <a href="/facts/Submarine_X-1/nYUrnDcT">Submarine X-1</a> is loosely based on Operation "Source".</li>
<li>A facsimile of the operation is featured in the 2003 video game <a href="/facts/Hidden_%26_Dangerous_2/6V4fcdde">Hidden & Dangerous 2</a> as a campaign mission.</li></ul>
<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/XE-class_submarine/Thoa8paL">XE-class submarine</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Operation_Struggle/Thoa8paL">Operation Struggle</a>, another midget submarine attack</li></ul>
<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

Citations

Bibliography
<ul><li>Garzke, William H.; Dulin, Robert O. (1985). Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-87021-101-0.</li></ul>
<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li>Tirpitz in Norway; X-craft midget submarines raid the fjords, Operation Source 1943 (2019); Osprey Raid Series #51. <a href="/facts/Osprey_Publishing/a86t2MTD">Osprey Publishing</a>. Author: Angus Konstam. ISBN (paperback): 978-1-4728-3585-7; (e-book): 978-1-4728-3586-4</li>
<li>Grove, Eric (1993). Sea Battles in close-up : World War 2 Volume 2. Ian Allan ltd. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-7110-2118-X.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"Lost heroes of the 'Tirpitz'". BBC. 17 February 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2018. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/tirpitz_heroes_01.shtml" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/tirpitz_heroes_01.shtml</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Кикнадзе В. Г. Международное сотрудничество в области освещения обстановки в Арктике (по опыту второй мировой войны). // Военно-исторический журнал. — 2014. — № 12. — С.42. (Kiknadze V. G. International cooperation in the field of covering the situation in the Arctic (based on the experience of the Second World War). // Military historical magazine. - 2014. - No. 12. - P.42.) <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Bute at War <a href="http://www.bute-at-war.org/butewar.shtml" target="_blank">http://www.bute-at-war.org/butewar.shtml</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Grove, p.124. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Grove, p.124. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Grove, p. 127. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Grove, pp.124 & 127. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Grove, p. 127. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Grove, p. 127. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Grove, p. 127. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">The passage crew were Harry Harte, Able Seaman,[8] George Hollett, Stoker[9] and Irishman, Edward Kearon, Sub-Lieutenant[10][11] <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Grove, p. 127. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Grove, p. 131 <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">O'Neill, Richard (25 June 2015). Suicide Squads: The Men and Machines of World War II Special Operations. ISBN 978-1-84065-082-2.[permanent dead link‍] <a href="978-1-84065-082-2" target="_blank">978-1-84065-082-2</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">"Lost heroes of the 'Tirpitz'". BBC History. BBC. 17 February 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2018. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/tirpitz_heroes_01.shtml#eight" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/tirpitz_heroes_01.shtml#eight</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Her sprenges bomba som skulle senke «Tirpitz» <a href="http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/distrikt/troms_og_finnmark/1.7653735" target="_blank">http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/distrikt/troms_og_finnmark/1.7653735</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">"World War II's X men, crews of the dangerous X class midget submarines". History Online. 11 March 2018. Retrieved 21 August 2018. <a href="https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/world-war-iis-men-crews-dangerous-class-midget-submarines.html/2" target="_blank">https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/world-war-iis-men-crews-dangerous-class-midget-submarines.html/2</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Grove, p.131. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Grove, p.131. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Garzke & Dulin 1985, p. 259. - Garzke, William H.; Dulin, Robert O. (1985). Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-101-0. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Garzke & Dulin 1985, pp. 259–261. - Garzke, William H.; Dulin, Robert O. (1985). Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-101-0. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Garzke & Dulin 1985, p. 262. - Garzke, William H.; Dulin, Robert O. (1985). Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-101-0. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Garzke & Dulin 1985, p. 264. - Garzke, William H.; Dulin, Robert O. (1985). Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-101-0. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">"Lost heroes of the 'Tirpitz'". BBC History. BBC. 17 February 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2018. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/tirpitz_heroes_01.shtml#eight" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/tirpitz_heroes_01.shtml#eight</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Grove, pp. 124 & 128. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Angus Konstam, p.36 <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Grove, p.124. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Grove, p. 127. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Angus Konstam, p.36 <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Grove, p. 127. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Grove, pp. 127 & 128. <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Angus Konstam, p.36 <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Magennis later earned a VC in the midget submarine attack on Takao. Grove, p. 127. <a href="/wiki/Japanese_cruiser_Takao_(1930)" target="_blank">/wiki/Japanese_cruiser_Takao_(1930)</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Angus Konstam, p.36 <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">[1] Supplement to The London Gazette, p. 996 of the article or p. 4 of PDF file <a href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/38204.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/38204.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Angus Konstam, p.36 <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">[1] Supplement to The London Gazette, p. 996 of the article or p. 4 of PDF file <a href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/38204.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/38204.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Angus Konstam, p.36 <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">[1] Supplement to The London Gazette, p. 996 of the article or p. 4 of PDF file <a href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/38204.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/UK/LondonGazette/38204.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">"No. 36390". The London Gazette (Supplement). 10 September 1943. pp. 901–902. <a href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/36390/supplement/901" target="_blank">https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/36390/supplement/901</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">"No. 36295". The London Gazette (Supplement). 17 December 1943. pp. 5539–5540. <a href="https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/36295/supplement/5539" target="_blank">https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/36295/supplement/5539</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">"Lost heroes of the 'Tirpitz'". BBC History. BBC. 17 February 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2018. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/tirpitz_heroes_01.shtml#eight" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/tirpitz_heroes_01.shtml#eight</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Operation Source open-in-new

Operation Source