Roman assemblies

<h2 id="comitia">Comitia</h2>
A comitia was an assembly summoned to make a decision, about whom should be <a href="/facts/Elections_in_the_Roman_Republic/RLheKQG9">elected</a>, whether a law should be passed, war and peace, or guilt. Most commonly during the republic, comitia were used for electoral purposes and the word comitia in Latin was used a metonymy for them. This contrasted with contiones (sg. contio) where nothing was enacted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a>
The word concilium (glossed in English as "council") also referred to some kinds of assemblies. This included foreign ones and assemblies of the plebeians at Rome; however, the word could be used to refer to meetings of the whole Roman people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> Usage of concilium was rare in Latin – reference to an assembly of the tribes under the presidency of <a href="/facts/Plebeian_tribune/xav46tnr">plebeian tribunes</a> only as a concilium plebis is a modern convention<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> – and there are instances where such an assembly was referred to as comitia tributa.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> Similarly, there are instances where concilium was used to refer to non-voting assemblies such as contiones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>

<h3>Curiate assembly</h3>
This section is an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Curiate_assembly/FgjG32Wn">Curiate assembly</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Curiate_assembly&action=edit">edit</a>]
The <a href="/facts/Curiate_assembly/FgjG32Wn">curiate assembly</a> (<a href="/facts/Latin_language/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>: comitia curiata) was one of the assemblies of the <a href="/facts/Roman_Republic/Han0FRLT">Roman Republic</a> and the oldest assembly at Rome. It was organised on the basis of <a href="/facts/Curia/jCRtFRyI">curiae</a> and is said to have been the main legislative and electoral assembly of the regal and early republican periods. Little concrete is known of its origins and early operation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a>

By the late republic, the curiae only met for limited pro forma purposes related to <a href="/facts/Religion_in_ancient_Rome/QrNwmgPM">public religion</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> the historical thirty curiae were each represented by a single <a href="/facts/Lictor/b89JmSAH">lictor</a> rather than actual groups of citizens. The foremost of these purposes was the <a href="/facts/Lex_curiata_de_imperio/Sy8NabEv">lex curiata de imperio</a>, passed as a matter of course in the presence of three <a href="/facts/Augur/aIEx1hRu">augurs</a>, which related to the quality of a curule magistrate's <a href="/facts/Auspices/oSftwm6W">auspices</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> When it met under the presidency of the <a href="/facts/Pontifex_maximus/hGJnFXlg">pontifex maximus</a>, the assembly was instead called the comitia calata to deal with matters relating to wills and selection of priests.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a>
<h3>Centuriate assembly</h3>
This section is an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Centuriate_assembly/eo8vYzeB">Centuriate assembly</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Centuriate_assembly&action=edit">edit</a>]

The <a href="/facts/Centuriate_assembly/eo8vYzeB">centuriate assembly</a> (<a href="/facts/Latin_language/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>: comitia centuriata) was a <a href="/facts/Citizens%27_assemblies_of_the_Roman_Republic/Vmb9zASm">popular assembly</a> of <a href="/facts/Ancient_Rome/cGqIuxPd">ancient Rome</a>. In the <a href="/facts/Roman_Republic/Han0FRLT">Roman Republic</a>, its main function was electing the <a href="/facts/Roman_consul/7Yh7yLJp">consuls</a>, <a href="/facts/Praetor/or3Q9946">praetors</a>, and <a href="/facts/Roman_censor/QD4cawyk">censors</a>. It was made up of 193 centuries (<a href="/facts/Latin_language/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>: centuriae) which were apportioned to <a href="/facts/Roman_citizenship/ag80U8GM">Roman citizens</a> by wealth and age, hugely overweighting the old and wealthy.
The assembly, according to the ancient sources, dates to the <a href="/facts/Roman_kingdom/mTCRBulj">regal period</a> and initially closely resembled the <a href="/facts/Roman_army/f6IYbVcR">Roman army</a> of the period in form, with the equestrians serving as cavalry, the upper census classes serving as heavy infantry, and the lower classes serving as light infantry. Whether this was ever the case is unclear; regardless, by the third century BC the assembly did not closely resemble the Roman people under arms and it served a largely electoral purpose, as it was rarely called to vote on legislation or to decide – as was its theoretical legal right as place of final appeal – capital cases.
Assembly procedure was weighted towards the upper classes. Both before and after reforms some time between 241 and 216 BC, the first class and equestrians voted first. Their votes would be tallied and announced. Then the classes would vote in descending order of wealth. Once the requisite number of candidates received a majority of voting units, voting would end. Because the equestrians, first class, and second class made a clear majority of voting units, the lower census classes would never be called on if they were in agreement. There is scholarly disagreement as to the extent to which the comitia centuriata facilitated competitive elections, even within its de facto restrictive electorate. The traditional view is that Roman elections were largely unrepresentative of the population as a whole and dominated by the wealthy through social connections.

While the assembly continued to exist during the <a href="/facts/Roman_Empire/l4E1aUuV">Roman Empire</a>, it served largely to approve decisions made by the emperor and senate. It is last recorded in the third century AD.
<h3>Tribal assembly</h3>
This section is an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Tribal_assembly/c98DBJL1">Tribal assembly</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tribal_assembly&action=edit">edit</a>]

The <a href="/facts/Tribal_assembly/c98DBJL1">tribal assembly</a> (<a href="/facts/Latin_language/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>: comitia tributa) was one of the popular assemblies of <a href="/facts/Ancient_Rome/cGqIuxPd">ancient Rome</a>, responsible, along with the plebeian council, for the passage of most Roman laws in the middle and late republics. They were also responsible for the elections of a number of junior magistracies: <a href="/facts/Aedile/wxsXQf9Q">aediles</a> and <a href="/facts/Quaestor/B7oxse5p">quaestors</a> especially.
It organised citizens, by the middle republic, into thirty-five <a href="/facts/Roman_tribe/qAEvzunQ">artificial tribes</a> which were assigned by geography. The composition of the tribes packed the urban poor into four tribes out of the thirty-five. The requirement that citizens vote in person also discriminated against the rural poor who were not able to travel to Rome.
Each tribe possessed an internal structure and a single vote in the assembly, regardless of the number of citizens belonging to that tribe, which was determined by a majority of the citizens of that tribe present at a vote. Legislative proposals in the assembly as a whole passed when a majority of tribes voted in favour; elections similarly continued until a majority of tribes approved of sufficient candidates that all posts were filled. 

The tribal assembly and the <a href="/facts/Plebeian_council/IGBct1LF">plebeian council</a> were organised identically. What differed between them was the presiding magistrate, with the tribal assembly convened by <a href="/facts/Consul/TMuYlsJV">consuls</a>, <a href="/facts/Praetor/or3Q9946">praetors</a>, or <a href="/facts/Aedile/wxsXQf9Q">aediles</a> and the plebeian council convened by <a href="/facts/Plebeian_tribune/xav46tnr">plebeian tribunes</a>. After the lex Hortensia in 287 BC endowed the plebeian council with full legislative powers, the two assemblies became practically identical.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>
<h3>Plebeian council</h3>
This section is an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Plebeian_council/IGBct1LF">Plebeian council</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plebeian_council&action=edit">edit</a>]
The <a href="/facts/Plebeian_council/IGBct1LF">plebeian council</a> (<a href="/facts/Latin_language/pM3Kge85">Latin</a>: concilium plebis) was one of the popular assemblies of ancient Rome. In the standard conception of the <a href="/facts/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic/V8ueYnFz">classical republican constitution</a>, it was essentially identical to the <a href="/facts/Tribal_assembly/c98DBJL1">tribal assembly</a> except that patricians were excluded and it was presided over mainly by <a href="/facts/Plebeian_tribune/xav46tnr">plebeian tribunes</a>. The main legislative assembly in the republic, it also elected the plebeian magistrates (tribunes and <a href="/facts/Aedile/wxsXQf9Q">aediles</a>) and heard some judicial matters.
It is the modern convention to refer to an assembly of the people, organised by tribe and under the presidency of a plebeian tribune, as a concilium plebis. This was, however, not necessarily the case. Ancient Romans did refer to such assemblies also as comitia tributa,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> suggesting that the common distinction between comitia and concilium as meetings of the whole and a part of the people respectively may be erroneous modern constructions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>

The Romans believed that the council emerged from the <a href="/facts/Conflict_of_the_Orders/jjPrpGA2">Conflict of the Orders</a>, created during a first secession of the plebs traditionally dated to 494 BC. Prior to 471, is not clear how the council was organised. It may have been organised by curiae, if ancient sources are to be believed, but it is more likely that it was undifferentiated, voting instead by head.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> Throughout the conflict, the plebeian magistrates are said to have fought with the patricians for political equality and the applicability of the plebeian council's decrees (plebiscita) to all Romans. At the close of this process, with the <a href="/facts/Lex_Hortensia/DpnFIE9Q">lex Hortensia</a> in 287 BC, it had achieved both.
<h2 id="contio">Contio</h2>
This section is an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Contio/6PWttk7a">Contio</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contio&action=edit">edit</a>]
The <a href="/facts/Contio/6PWttk7a">contio</a> (pl. "contiones"; from <a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> "conventio" meaning "gathering") was an ad hoc public assembly in <a href="/facts/Ancient_Rome/cGqIuxPd">Ancient Rome</a>, which existed during the <a href="/facts/Roman_Kingdom/mTCRBulj">monarchy</a> as well as in the <a href="/facts/Roman_Republic/Han0FRLT">Roman Republic</a> and <a href="/facts/Roman_Empire/l4E1aUuV">Roman Empire</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> At the contio, <a href="/facts/Roman_magistrate/hfRYSQJv">magistrates</a> informed the Roman citizens on various topics related to politics. The main difference between the contio and other public assemblies in Rome, such as the <a href="/facts/Comitia/Vmb9zASm">comitia</a>, is that the citizens who attended contiones were there to hear speeches and not to vote. The contio merely served a communicative function, offering magistrates the opportunity to give the people a report of what had been decided during a <a href="/facts/Roman_Senate/NXK83zU9">senate</a> meeting or to discuss a proposed legislative bill (<a href="/facts/Rogatio/hIlWsQr7">rogatio</a>) in front of the citizens to help them make up their mind before they had to vote on it in other assemblies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>

Magistrates also used the contio as a means of self-promotion, presenting themselves as capable and honest politicians who kept the interests of the people in mind (in other words, adhered to the <a href="/facts/Populares/oxYHtyGy">popularis</a> ideology), hoping to gain sympathy and support from the people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> Aside from a political assembly, the word "contio" could also refer to a type of Roman <a href="/facts/Roman_military/hvScchL4">military</a> speech.
<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Town_meeting/WVlN7c5f">Town meeting</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2>

<ul><li>van der Blom, Henriette (2016). <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/oratory-and-political-career-in-the-late-roman-republic/0FF23CFD58211BCB8085B9F75664CD72">Oratory and Political Career in the Late Roman Republic</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781107280281">10.1017/cbo9781107280281</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-107-05193-5.</li>
<li>Cornell, Tim (1995). The Beginnings of Rome. London: Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-415-01596-0. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31515793">31515793</a>.</li>
<li>Forsythe, Gary (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-520-94029-1. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70728478">70728478</a>.</li>
<li>Lomas, Kathryn (2018). The Rise of Rome. History of the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4159%2F9780674919938">10.4159/9780674919938</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-674-65965-0. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:239349186">239349186</a>.</li>
<li>Mouritsen, Henrik (2017). Politics in the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-107-03188-3. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2016047823">2016047823</a>.</li>
<li>Lintott, Andrew (1999). Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-926108-6. Reprinted 2009.</li>
<li>Pina Polo, Francisco (1 December 1995). "Procedures and functions of civil and military contiones in Rome". Klio. 77 (1): 203–216. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fklio.1995.77.jg.203">10.1524/klio.1995.77.jg.203</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2192-7669">2192-7669</a>.</li>
<li>Tan, James (2008). <a href="https://online.ucpress.edu/ca/article/27/1/163/92783/Contiones-in-the-Age-of-Cicero">"Contiones in the age of Cicero"</a>. Classical Antiquity. 27 (1): 163–201. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fca.2008.27.1.163">10.1525/ca.2008.27.1.163</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0278-6656">0278-6656</a>.</li>
<li>Vervaet, Frederik Juliaan (2015). <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/ccgg_1016-9008_2015_num_26_1_1848">"The "lex curiata" and the patrician auspices"</a>. Cahiers du Centre Gustave Glotz. 26: 201–224. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1016-9008">1016-9008</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44945732">44945732</a>.</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

<ul><li>Devereaux, Bret (28 July 2023). <a href="https://acoup.blog/2023/07/27/collections-how-to-roman-republic-101-part-ii-romans-assemble/">"How to Roman republic 101, part II: Romans, assemble!"</a>. A Collection of Unmitigated Pedantry. Retrieved 22 February 2025.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Lintott 1999, pp. 42–43, noting that "[Concilium] might on occasion refer to assemblies of the whole people" and that it was used for emphasis on who was voting (eg plebs) rather than how (eg by tribes). - Lintott, Andrew (1999). Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Lintott 1999, p. 40. - Lintott, Andrew (1999). Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Lintott 1999, pp. 40–41, 43–49. - Lintott, Andrew (1999). Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Lintott 1999, p. 42. - Lintott, Andrew (1999). Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Lintott 1999, p. 43, citing Livy, 1.26.5, 1.36.6, 2.7.7, 3.71.3, and 6.20.11. - Lintott, Andrew (1999). Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Lintott 1999, p. 53. "Since Mommsen's time, most modern scholars have used [comitia tributa] exclusively for a meeting by tribes of the whole [people] while reserving the term concilium plebis for meetings of the plebeians. This orthodoxy has come under attack.". - Lintott, Andrew (1999). Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Lintott 1999, p. 53 n. 62, citing Livy, 2.56.2. - Lintott, Andrew (1999). Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Forsythe 2005, p. 180. - Forsythe, Gary (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-94029-1. OCLC 70728478. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70728478" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70728478</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Mouritsen 2017, p. 26. "In the late republic the comitia curiata had very limited functions, and its original responsibilities are largely a matter of speculation". - Mouritsen, Henrik (2017). Politics in the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-03188-3. LCCN 2016047823. <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2016047823" target="_blank">https://lccn.loc.gov/2016047823</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Lintott 1999, p. 49, noting the curiate assembly "existed only in a symbolic and ritualised form". - Lintott, Andrew (1999). Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Vervaet 2015, pp. 215–16. - Vervaet, Frederik Juliaan (2015). "The "lex curiata" and the patrician auspices". Cahiers du Centre Gustave Glotz. 26: 201–224. ISSN 1016-9008. JSTOR 44945732. <a href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/ccgg_1016-9008_2015_num_26_1_1848" target="_blank">https://www.persee.fr/doc/ccgg_1016-9008_2015_num_26_1_1848</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Lintott 1999, p. 49. - Lintott, Andrew (1999). Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Lomas 2018, p. 189. - Lomas, Kathryn (2018). The Rise of Rome. History of the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. doi:10.4159/9780674919938. ISBN 978-0-674-65965-0. S2CID 239349186. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4159%2F9780674919938" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4159%2F9780674919938</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Lintott 1999, p. 53 n. 62, citing: Livy, 2.56.2; Farrell, J, "The distinction between comitia and concilium", Athenaeum, 64: 407–38. - Lintott, Andrew (1999). Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926108-6. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Forsythe 2005, p. 180. "It must also be stressed that the supposed technical terms, comitia populi tributa and concilium plebis tributum, are artificial modern constructions and have no authority in ancient texts". - Forsythe, Gary (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-94029-1. OCLC 70728478. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70728478" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70728478</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Cornell 1995, pp. 260–61. - Cornell, Tim (1995). The Beginnings of Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-01596-0. OCLC 31515793. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31515793" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31515793</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Pina Polo 1995, pp. 205–6, 211–12. - Pina Polo, Francisco (1 December 1995). "Procedures and functions of civil and military contiones in Rome". Klio. 77 (1): 203–216. doi:10.1524/klio.1995.77.jg.203. ISSN 2192-7669. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fklio.1995.77.jg.203" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1524%2Fklio.1995.77.jg.203</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">van der Blom 2016, p. 34. - van der Blom, Henriette (2016). Oratory and Political Career in the Late Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9781107280281. ISBN 978-1-107-05193-5. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/oratory-and-political-career-in-the-late-roman-republic/0FF23CFD58211BCB8085B9F75664CD72" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/oratory-and-political-career-in-the-late-roman-republic/0FF23CFD58211BCB8085B9F75664CD72</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Tan 2008, pp. 163–66. - Tan, James (2008). "Contiones in the age of Cicero". Classical Antiquity. 27 (1): 163–201. doi:10.1525/ca.2008.27.1.163. ISSN 0278-6656. <a href="https://online.ucpress.edu/ca/article/27/1/163/92783/Contiones-in-the-Age-of-Cicero" target="_blank">https://online.ucpress.edu/ca/article/27/1/163/92783/Contiones-in-the-Age-of-Cicero</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Roman assemblies open-in-new

Roman assemblies