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Transport in Kenya
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<h2 id="roads">Roads</h2> <p>According to the Kenya Roads Board, Kenya has 160,886 kilometres (99,970 mi) of <a href="/facts/List_of_roads_in_Kenya/0kfc7qTj">roads</a>. </p> <h3>Classification</h3> <p>They are currently classified into the following categories:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Class</th><th>Description</th><th>Purpose</th><th>Roads</th><th>Paved</th><th>Unpaved</th><th>Total (in km)</th></tr><tr><td>A</td><td>International Trunk Roads</td><td>Link centres of international importance and cross international boundaries or terminate at international ports or airports.</td><td><a href="/facts/A1_road_(Kenya)/9Aly27Ho">A1</a>, <a href="/facts/A2_road_(Kenya)/MsgX5rMg">A2</a>, <a href="/facts/A3_road_(Kenya)/vkpeKVSG">A3</a>, <a href="/facts/A4_road_(Kenya)/WgVsna63">A4</a>, <a href="/facts/A14_road_(Kenya)/JBXa3N0v">A14</a>, <a href="/facts/A23_road_(Kenya)/RmdcqpBw">A23</a>, <a href="/facts/A104_road_(Kenya)/Vfv65z6f">A104</a>, <a href="/facts/A109_road_(Kenya)/pfvukJJU">A109</a></td><td>2,772</td><td>816</td><td>3,588</td></tr><tr><td>B</td><td>National Trunk Roads</td><td>Link nationally important centres (e.g. Provincial headquarters).</td><td><a href="/facts/B1_road_(Kenya)/LBg4Pwdz">B1</a>, <a href="/facts/B3_road_(Kenya)/WDfJn4Uc">B3</a>, <a href="/facts/B8_road_(Kenya)/bhqpfqGN">B8</a></td><td>1,489</td><td>1,156</td><td>2,645</td></tr><tr><td>C</td><td>Primary Roads</td><td>Link provincially important centres to each other or to higher class roads (e.g. District headquarters).</td><td>C107, C111, C115</td><td>2,693</td><td>5,164</td><td>7,857</td></tr><tr><td>D</td><td>Secondary Roads</td><td>Link locally important centres to each other, or to more important centres or to a higher class road (e.g. divisional headquarters).</td><td></td><td>1,238</td><td>9,483</td><td>10,721</td></tr><tr><td>E</td><td>Minor Roads</td><td>Any link to a minor centre.</td><td></td><td>577</td><td>26,071</td><td>26,649</td></tr><tr><td>SPR</td><td>Special Purpose Roads</td><td>Government Roads (G)Settlement Roads (L)Rural Access Roads (R)Sugar Roads (S)Tea Roads (T)Wheat Roads (W)</td><td></td><td>100</td><td>10,376</td><td>10,476</td></tr><tr><td>U</td><td>Unclassified Roads</td><td>All other public roads and streets</td><td></td><td>2,318</td><td>96,623</td><td>98,941</td></tr><tr><td>All</td><td>Total</td><td>All public roads and streets</td><td></td><td>11,187</td><td>149,689</td><td>160,876</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Bus transport</h3> <p>There are around 100,000 <a href="/facts/Matatu/hP4U7F9l">matatus</a> (<a href="/facts/Minibus/kh3q4Lqm">minibuses</a>), which constitute the bulk of the country's public transport system. </p><p>Once the largest bus company in Kenya, Kenya Bus Services, ran into financial difficulties, forcing them to reduce the number of buses operated. They are currently operating minibuses within Nairobi city, although new, smaller, city buses offering passengers higher standards of comfort and safety have been introduced on some inner-city routes. </p><p>Coast Bus, the oldest bus operator in Kenya, runs a day and night service between Nairobi and the coastal city of Mombasa. Ascott operates minivans offering shuttle service between Nairobi and <a href="/facts/Kisii_County/dB1zD40U">Kisii</a>; they offer snacks on board. The Guardian bus co. Ltd, a private company which runs the Guardian Bus service, operates day and night passenger bus and courier services to a number of destinations in Western Kenya. </p><p>Other bus companies in Kenya include Modern Coast, Nyamira Express, Otange, MASH, Vanga, Simba coach, Xenon dreamline, Messina, MAslah, Amani coaches, west coaches, Horizon, 2nk sacco, Chania Comfort, chania genesis, parrot line, x calibur and Crown Bus but there are a number of other companies which offer inter-city services such as Eldoret Express,Kawere, Climax, Greenline, Western Express, Mbukinya, Kalita Coaches and Palmdam.There also number of shuttle companies operating van to western Kenya such as Sasaline, Blueline, Classic, Khukhu, Royal Rift, Transline msafiri, Transline classic, Premium shuttles, Nyanza shuttle, North Rift, Molo Line and Mash Poa.Taxedo </p> <h3>Regulation and Enforcement</h3> <p>In February 2004 the Ministry of Transport in Kenya introduced new regulations governing the operation of Matatus. These regulations (famously referred to as "Michuki Rules") include: the compulsory fitting of <a href="/facts/Safety_belt/2m5BvW5Y">safety belts</a> and <a href="/facts/Speed_governor/CgECT6ap">speed governors</a>. In addition, standing on matatus was banned. As a result of these regulations, many matatus were taken off the road, which caused great disruption to public transport, forcing many people to walk to work. Now the situation has stabilised, and the new regulations have resulted in a great reduction of the number of people killed and injured in accidents. Due to lax enforcement after the initial push, the number of deaths in road accidents had increased in recent years. </p><p>On 1 December 2012 the government will begin to enforce the recently amended traffic act which has significantly increased the penalties for offences. <a href="/facts/Matatu/hP4U7F9l">Matatu</a> operators have protested the move through strike action.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> </p> <h3>International highways</h3> <p>Two routes in the <a href="/facts/Trans-African_Highway/j0bg2rws">Trans-African Highway</a> network pass through <a href="/facts/Kenya/Y9Ko9pQu">Kenya</a> and the capital, <a href="/facts/Nairobi/AykVFgL3">Nairobi</a>: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/facts/Cairo-Cape_Town_Highway/e8j01XS7">Cairo-Cape Town Highway</a>, Trans-African Highway 4, linking North Africa, East Africa and Southern Africa. From Nairobi southwards this is one of the most heavily used routes in the network, and includes one of the longest complete paved sections. However, it still has missing links to the north and it is not practical to travel to Cairo without off-road vehicles. This part will be completed as part of the <a href="/facts/LAPSSET/zwYHdb8b">LAPSSET</a> project.</li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Lagos-Mombasa_Highway/a4SCDjBs">Lagos-Mombasa Highway</a>, Trans-African Highway 8, links East Africa and West Africa. It is only complete between the <a href="/facts/Ugandan/PabdegRm">Ugandan</a>–<a href="/facts/DR_Congo/E2KmHDdv">DR Congo</a> border and Mombasa, linking the <a href="/facts/African_Great_Lakes/JKIdzAWF">African Great Lakes</a> region to the sea. It is also named the 'Trans-African Highway'.</li></ul> <h2 id="airports">Airports</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/List_of_airports_in_Kenya/PcuugWn6">List of airports in Kenya</a></p> <h3>Airports – with paved runways</h3> <p><i>total:</i> 16 </p><p><i>over 3,047 m:</i> 5 </p><p><i>2,438 to 3,047 m:</i> 2 </p><p><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i> 2 </p><p><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i> 6 </p><p><i>under 914 m:</i> 1 (2013) </p><p><a href="/facts/Jomo_Kenyatta_International_Airport/Pjg4CGGk">Jomo Kenyatta International Airport</a> in <a href="/facts/Nairobi/AykVFgL3">Nairobi</a>, is Kenya's largest airport and serves the most destinations. Some international flights go to <a href="/facts/Moi_International_Airport/c2dTF5cx">Moi International Airport</a> in <a href="/facts/Mombasa/rgwqJqIX">Mombasa</a>. <a href="/facts/Kisumu_Airport/xwHrghlo">Kisumu Airport</a> was upgraded to an international airport in 2011 and a second phase of expansion is under way. In 2012, US Navy <a href="/facts/Seebee/FRzSm8VS">Seebees</a> built a major new tarmac runway at <a href="/facts/Wajir_Airport/aPxfuvus">Wajir Airport</a> that can take heavy aircraft.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <h3>Airports – with unpaved runways</h3> <p><i>total:</i> 181 </p><p><i>1,524 to 2,437 m:</i> 14 </p><p><i>914 to 1,523 m:</i> 107 </p><p><i>under 914 m:</i> 60 (2013) </p><p>Many airports with unpaved runways serve private purposes, such as private game parks and safari lodges, but are still serviced by airlines like AirKenya </p> <h2 id="railways">Railways</h2> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Rail_transport_in_Kenya/WJoY6LUQ">Rail transport in Kenya</a> and <a href="/facts/Kenya_Railways_Corporation/fjo7WDE2">Kenya Railways Corporation</a></p> <p><i>Total:</i> 2,066 km (1,284 mi) </p><p><i>1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) <a href="/facts/Metre_gauge/4a6LKCxM">metre gauge</a>:</i> 2,066 km </p><p>The former <a href="/facts/Uganda_Railway/bqEgok2Q">Uganda Railway</a>, was run by the company <a href="/facts/East_African_Railways_and_Harbours_Corporation/qfoe4Crj">East African Railways</a>. It jointly served the present countries of <a href="/facts/Uganda/PabdegRm">Uganda</a>, <a href="/facts/Tanzania/MJueJ7E4">Tanzania</a> and <a href="/facts/Kenya/Y9Ko9pQu">Kenya</a>. Since the dissolution of the EAR corporation in 1977, the national company <a href="/facts/Kenya_Railways/fjo7WDE2">Kenya Railways</a> Corporation runs the former Uganda Railway and its branches in Kenya. The most important line in the country runs between the port of <a href="/facts/Mombasa/rgwqJqIX">Mombasa</a> and <a href="/facts/Nairobi/AykVFgL3">Nairobi</a>, sleeping car accommodation is offered for tourists. </p><p>In 2006, the <a href="/facts/Rift_Valley_Railways_Consortium/x8DRNF0s">Rift Valley Railways Consortium</a> led by South African companies took over the operation of the Kenyan and Ugandan railway network on a contract lasting 25 years, with the opportunity of renewal. After criticism from the Kenya Railways Corporation, RVR doubled the frequency of service, and also imposed restrictions to reduce train derailments caused by the ageing infrastructure.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> </p><p>RVR run passenger trains within Kenya only, primarily from <a href="/facts/Nairobi/AykVFgL3">Nairobi</a> to <a href="/facts/Mombasa/rgwqJqIX">Mombasa</a> but also to local towns such as <a href="/facts/Kisumu/Bt0fbyCc">Kisumu</a>. Passenger services on these lines are offered on peak periods only. Freight services are the bulk of RVR's operations. </p><p>In 2008, agreements were made with Uganda about gauge standardisation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p><p>In 2011, Kenya signed a memorandum of understanding with the <a href="/facts/China_Road_and_Bridge_Corporation/gaebfrQa">China Road and Bridge Corporation</a> to build the <a href="/facts/Mombasa%25E2%2580%2593Nairobi_Standard_Gauge_Railway/eBTUHj9T">Mombasa–Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway</a> (SGR). Financing for the US$3.6 billion project was finalised in May 2014, with the <a href="/facts/Exim_Bank_of_China/V74vqnAE">Exim Bank of China</a> extending a loan for 90% of the project cost, and the remaining 10% coming from the Kenyan government.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> Passenger service on the SGR was inaugurated on 31 May 2017.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> Work to extend the SGR to <a href="/facts/Suswa/nVWd3qLU">Suswa</a> is complete.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> The SGR program is intended to replace the old, inefficient <a href="/facts/Metre-gauge/4a6LKCxM">metre-gauge</a> railway system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>The first segment of the SGR, between Mombasa and Nairobi, opened passenger rail service in June 2017, and freight rail service in January 2018.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p> <h3>Railway links with adjacent countries</h3> African Great Lakes <ul><li><a href="/facts/South_Sudan/DacJpKfT"></a> <a href="/facts/Rail_transport_in_South_Sudan/blbY5fC5">South Sudan</a> – none – proposed link to <a href="/facts/Juba/hr5hPQmJ">Juba</a> (2005) <a href="/facts/Break-of-gauge/a7SGdIwQ">break-of-gauge</a> 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in)/1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Tanzania/MJueJ7E4"></a> <a href="/facts/Transport_in_Tanzania/g022mj2D">Tanzania</a> – same 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) gauge – maybe defunct</li> <li><a href="/facts/Uganda/PabdegRm"></a> <a href="/facts/Transport_in_Uganda/PtyVLzPp">Uganda</a> – yes – same gauge – 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in)</li></ul> <h2 id="waterways">Waterways</h2> <p>Part of the <a href="/facts/Lake_Victoria/GLQHLh4M">Lake Victoria</a> system is within the boundaries of Kenya. Kenya has a major international port at <a href="/facts/Mombasa/rgwqJqIX">Mombasa</a>, serving both Kenya and Uganda. <a href="/facts/Kisumu/Bt0fbyCc">Kisumu</a> on Lake Victoria is also another major port, which has ferry connections to Uganda and Tanzania. </p> <h3>Merchant Marine</h3> <p><i>Total:</i> 3 ships (with a volume of 1,000 <a href="/facts/Gross_tonnage/uK5N7oGL">gross tonnage</a> (GT) or over) 6,049 <a href="/facts/Gross_tonnage/uK5N7oGL">GT</a>/7,082 tonnes <a href="/facts/Deadweight_tonnage/Xx3VLnhg">deadweight</a> (DWT) </p><p><i>By type:</i> passenger/cargo 2, <a href="/facts/Oil_tanker/WHUhISVB">petroleum tanker</a> 1 </p><p><i>Registered in other countries:</i> 6 (2006) </p> <h3>Ports and harbours</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Mombasa/rgwqJqIX">Mombasa</a> has the only commercial port that reaches international standards. Mombasa's commercial port is called <a href="/facts/Kilindini_Harbour/uqhex6CU">Kilindini Harbour</a> and is run by the <a href="/facts/Kenya_Ports_Authority/APzowI0f">Kenya Ports Authority</a>, it lies on the Indian Ocean. </p><p>There are plans to build another international port in <a href="/facts/Lamu/4JxsjrB5">Lamu</a> to the north east of <a href="/facts/Mombasa/rgwqJqIX">Mombasa</a>. </p><p>There is an <a href="/facts/Inland_port/mstVTAxx">inland port</a> at <a href="/facts/Kisumu/Bt0fbyCc">Kisumu</a> which serves <a href="/facts/Lake_Victoria/GLQHLh4M">Lake Victoria</a>. In 2015 a new ferry was delivered to Kisumu by road.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/East_African_Railway_Master_Plan/s7vsWDd9">East African Railway Master Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Lake_Victoria_ferries/qTTF83nc">Lake Victoria ferries</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Matatu/hP4U7F9l">Matatu</a></li></ul> <p> This article incorporates <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/copyright-and-contributors/">public domain material</a> from <a href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/"><i>The World Factbook</i></a>. <a href="/facts/CIA/U7urmQYL">CIA</a>. </p> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Conover, Ted (2010). "The Road Is Very Unfair". <i>The Routes of Man: How Roads Are Changing the World and the Way We Live Today</i>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 118–163. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-4000-4244-9.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/africa/kenya/get.htm#around">Getting around in Kenya</a> from <a href="/facts/Lonely_Planet/8zgE7gcl">Lonely Planet</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.its.usyd.edu.au/conferences/thredbo/thredbo_papers_6/MELECK~1.DOC">"Study on Matatu"</a>. <i>Thredbo</i>. Institute of Transport Studies, <a href="/facts/University_of_Sydney_Business_School/DCET383H">University of Sydney Business School</a>. 1999. Retrieved 2 May 2011.</li> <li><a href="http://www.dfid.gov.uk/R4D/PDF/Outputs/IIG/iig-warwick-morjaria.pdf">"Our Turn To Eat: The Political Economy of Roads in Kenya"</a> (PDF). <i>R4D (Research for Development)</i>. UK <a href="/facts/Department_for_International_Development/QwqeTWza">Department for International Development</a>. 15 December 2009. Retrieved 2 May 2011.</li> <li><a href="http://www.maplandia.com/kenya/">Kenya on maplandia.com</a></li></ul> <p>Regulators </p> The following Kenyan state corporations are involved in the regulation of transport: <ul><li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722131842/http://www.airaccident.go.ke/">Air Accident Investigation Unit</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.kaa.go.ke/">Kenya Airports Authority</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.kcaa.or.ke/">Kenya Civil Aviation Authority</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.kenyaferry.co.ke/">Kenya Ferry Services Limited</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.kma.go.ke/">Kenya Maritime Authority</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.kenha.co.ke/">Kenya National Highways Authority (KeNHA)</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.knsl.co.ke/">Kenya National Shipping Line</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.kpc.co.ke/">Kenya Pipeline Company</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.kpa.co.ke/">Kenya Ports Authority</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.krc.co.ke/">Kenya Railways Corporation</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.krb.go.ke/">Kenya Roads Board</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.ntsa.go.ke/">National Transport and Safety Authority (NTSA)</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.kerra.go.ke/">Kenya Rural Roads Authority (KeRRA)</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Road Network Classification". Kenya Roads Board. Retrieved 2 May 2011. <a href="http://www.krb.go.ke/index.php/classification" target="_blank">http://www.krb.go.ke/index.php/classification</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"Commuters stranded as matatus strike". nation.co.ke. <a href="http://www.nation.co.ke/News/-/1056/1632574/-/x9nne6z/-/index.html" target="_blank">http://www.nation.co.ke/News/-/1056/1632574/-/x9nne6z/-/index.html</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Goldman, David (1 January 2012). "Navy Seabees to Construct Jet Handling Runway in Wajir Airbase Kenya". Nairobi: Strategic Intelligence News. <a href="http://intelligencebriefs.com/?p=1400" target="_blank">http://intelligencebriefs.com/?p=1400</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Infrastructure". EngineeringNews.co.za. Retrieved 2 May 2011. <a href="http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article.php?a_id=112096" target="_blank">http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article.php?a_id=112096</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"More investors sought for Kenya-Uganda Railway system following failure of RVR". African Press International. wordpress.com. 5 October 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2011. <a href="http://africanpress.wordpress.com/2008/10/05/more-investors-sought-for-kenya-uganda-railway-system-following-failure-of-rvr/" target="_blank">http://africanpress.wordpress.com/2008/10/05/more-investors-sought-for-kenya-uganda-railway-system-following-failure-of-rvr/</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>"Kenya, China sign standard gauge railway agreement". Daily Nation. 11 May 2014. <a href="http://www.nation.co.ke/news/East-Africa-China-Standard-Gauge-Railway/1056-2310836-vvl2cjz/index.html" target="_blank">http://www.nation.co.ke/news/East-Africa-China-Standard-Gauge-Railway/1056-2310836-vvl2cjz/index.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"Kenya opens Nairobi-Mombasa Madaraka Express railway". BBC News. 31 May 2017. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-40092600" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-40092600</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>"Kenyan President launches SGR Phase 2A construction". Railway Gazette. 20 October 2016. <a href="http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/infrastructure/single-view/view/kenyan-president-launches-sgr-phase-2a-construction.html" target="_blank">http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/infrastructure/single-view/view/kenyan-president-launches-sgr-phase-2a-construction.html</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Moore, Jack (12 May 2014). "China Railway to Link Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and South Sudan". International Business Times. New York City. Retrieved 17 September 2018. <a href="https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/china-railway-link-kenya-uganda-rwanda-burundi-south-sudan-1448216" target="_blank">https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/china-railway-link-kenya-uganda-rwanda-burundi-south-sudan-1448216</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Kacungira, Nancy (8 June 2017). "Will Kenya get value for money from its new railway?". Nairobi: BBC Africa. Retrieved 17 September 2018. <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-40171095" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-40171095</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Parke, Phoebe (15 May 2016). "Kenya's $13 billion railway project is taking shape". Cable News Network (CNN). Retrieved 18 September 2018. <a href="https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/15/africa/kenya-railway-east-africa/index.html" target="_blank">https://www.cnn.com/2016/05/15/africa/kenya-railway-east-africa/index.html</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>"Huge Boat Being Transported Makes A Stop In Thika – Naibuzz". naibuzz.com. 11 August 2014. <a href="http://naibuzz.com/2014/08/11/huge-boat-transported-makes-stop-thika/" target="_blank">http://naibuzz.com/2014/08/11/huge-boat-transported-makes-stop-thika/</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>