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Voiceless alveolar affricate
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<h2 id="voiceless-alveolar-sibilant-affricate">Voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate</h2> <p class="note">"Voiceless dental affricate" redirects here. For the non-sibilant affricate, see <a href="/facts/Voiceless_dental_non-sibilant_affricate/hPQVEk0o">Voiceless dental non-sibilant affricate</a>.</p> <p>The voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate is a type of <a href="/facts/Consonant/81X2SGS6">consonantal</a> sound, used in some <a href="/facts/Speech_communication/WEelhfTs">spoken</a> <a href="/facts/Language/IRcTok2q">languages</a>. The sound is transcribed in the <a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> with ⟨t͡s⟩ or ⟨t͜s⟩ (formerly with ⟨ʦ⟩ or ⟨ƾ⟩). The voiceless alveolar affricate occurs in many <a href="/facts/Indo-European_languages/L34TfgSr">Indo-European languages</a>, such as <a href="/facts/German_language/oWaQIDA8">German</a> (which was also part of the <a href="/facts/High_German_consonant_shift/B4LuIgoe">High German consonant shift</a>), <a href="/facts/Kashmiri_language/b35X0L3H">Kashmiri</a>, <a href="/facts/Marathi_language/uIJuwlFW">Marathi</a>, <a href="/facts/Pashto_language/hc2ndCqx">Pashto</a>, <a href="/facts/Russian_language/ETXrTgHV">Russian</a> and most other <a href="/facts/Slavic_languages/b5GaeFx1">Slavic languages</a> such as <a href="/facts/Polish_language/lzpvYDvV">Polish</a> and <a href="/facts/Serbo-Croatian/MS85Xuwk">Serbo-Croatian</a>; also, among many others, in <a href="/facts/Georgian_language/DoKtMLfq">Georgian</a>, in Mongolia, and Tibetan Sanskrit, in <a href="/facts/Japanese_language/EEv485a5">Japanese</a>, in <a href="/facts/Mandarin_Chinese/yxvDg67C">Mandarin Chinese</a>, and in <a href="/facts/Cantonese_language/y5UhgScP">Cantonese</a>. Some <a href="/facts/International_auxiliary_language/zuBmGwtx">international auxiliary languages</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Esperanto/5cWPoLuM">Esperanto</a>, <a href="/facts/Ido_language/ShxuTqjF">Ido</a> and <a href="/facts/Interlingua/eKNyxEGI">Interlingua</a> also include this sound. </p> <h3>Features</h3> <p>Features of the voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate: </p> <ul><li>Its <a href="/facts/Manner_of_articulation/HxyCqDQC">manner of articulation</a> is <a href="/facts/Sibilant/5ejwC21e">sibilant</a> <a href="/facts/Affricate/Fn2y7FIA">affricate</a>, which means it is produced by first stopping the air flow entirely, then directing it with the tongue to the sharp edge of the teeth, causing high-frequency <a href="/facts/Turbulence/NpgFUhG5">turbulence</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Stop_consonant/okC9pztc">stop</a> component of this affricate is <a href="/facts/Laminal_consonant/EVA0SWmd">laminal</a> <a href="/facts/Alveolar_consonant/B6VkW2EX">alveolar</a>, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the <a href="/facts/Alveolar_ridge/qxn0CvTN">alveolar ridge</a>. For simplicity, this affricate is usually called after the sibilant fricative component.</li> <li>There are at least three specific variants of the <a href="/facts/Fricative_consonant/1FQuuhfX">fricative</a> component: <ul><li><a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative/WLKtEYDe">Dentalized laminal alveolar</a> (commonly called "dental"), which means it is articulated with the tongue blade very close to the upper front teeth, with the tongue tip resting behind lower front teeth. The hissing effect in this variety of [s] is very strong.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative/WLKtEYDe">Non-retracted alveolar</a>, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the <a href="/facts/Alveolar_ridge/qxn0CvTN">alveolar ridge</a>, termed respectively <i><a href="/facts/Apical_consonant/L7691gMF">apical</a></i> and <i>laminal</i>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative/WLKtEYDe">Retracted alveolar</a>, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively <i>apical</i> and <i>laminal</i>. Acoustically, it is close to [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative/enUwqS2w">ʃ</a>] or laminal [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative/qv1enYKj">ʂ</a>].</li></ul></li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Phonation/u2IGLdgG">phonation</a> is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.</li> <li>It is an <a href="/facts/Oral_consonant/feM4cful">oral consonant</a>, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.</li> <li>It is a <a href="/facts/Central_consonant/YLATXvJW">central consonant</a>, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.</li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Airstream_mechanism/qooe2ESC">airstream mechanism</a> is <a href="/facts/Pulmonic_egressive/BICa0WA0">pulmonic</a>, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the <a href="/facts/Intercostal_muscle/SFCkv3vD">intercostal muscles</a> and <a href="/facts/Abdominal_muscles/HcTzDFL0">abdominal muscles</a>, as in most sounds.</li></ul> <h3>Occurrence</h3> <p>The following sections are named after the fricative component. </p> <h4>Variable</h4> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2">Language</th><th>Word</th><th><a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">IPA</a></th><th>Meaning</th><th>Notes</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/German_language/oWaQIDA8">German</a></td><td>Standard<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/German_orthography/wRfTdcfG">Zeit</a></i></td><td>[t͡säɪ̯t]</td><td>'time'</td><td>The fricative component varies between dentalized laminal, non-retracted laminal and non-retracted apical.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Standard_German_phonology/mxAMM3la">Standard German phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Italian_language/YXsmvlQG">Italian</a></td><td>Standard<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Italian_orthography/QP2BJ6J7">grazia</a></i></td><td>[ˈɡrät̚t͡sjä]</td><td>'grace'</td><td>The fricative component varies between dentalized laminal and non-retracted apical. In the latter case, the stop component is laminal <a href="/facts/Denti-alveolar_consonant/RRsdysLW">denti-alveolar</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Italian_phonology/6ClLWgLo">Italian phonology</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Dentalized laminal alveolar</h4> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2">Language</th><th>Word</th><th><a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">IPA</a></th><th>Meaning</th><th>Notes</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Armenian_language/tELuE2wG">Armenian</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Eastern_Armenian/qvxWtyD1">Eastern</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Armenian_alphabet/eah4kBXh">ցանց</a>/canc</td><td>[t̻͡s̪ʰan̪t̻͡s̪ʰ]ⓘ</td><td>'net'</td><td>Contrasts aspirated and unaspirated forms</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Basque_language/rEMpH97p">Basque</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Basque_alphabet/7Awejcam">hotz</a></i></td><td>[o̞t̻͡s̪]</td><td>'cold'</td><td>Contrasts with a sibilant affricate with an apical fricative component.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Belarusian_language/yRuE1cfX">Belarusian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Belarusian_alphabet/Egq4EKJb">цётка</a>/cötka</td><td>[ˈt̻͡s̪ʲɵtka]</td><td>'aunt'</td><td>Contrasting <a href="/facts/Palatalization_(phonetics)/LXAIp4TB">palatalization</a>. See <a href="/facts/Belarusian_phonology/He0SIPxg">Belarusian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Bulgarian_language/susG15pr">Bulgarian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Bulgarian_alphabet/L6bXeRPS">цар</a>/car</td><td>[t̻͡s̪är]</td><td>'<a href="/facts/Tsar/qTE59C0T">Tsar</a>'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Bulgarian_phonology/mkE8GYYp">Bulgarian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Chinese_language/771ruUY1">Chinese</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Standard_Chinese/ofl48GA8">Mandarin</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Chinese_characters/5pn1PFvj">早餐</a> / <i>zǎo cān</i></td><td>[t̻͡s̪ɑʊ˨˩ t̻͡s̪ʰan˥]</td><td>'breakfast'</td><td>Contrasts with <a href="/facts/Aspirated_consonant/Kat42tA6">aspirated</a> form. See <a href="/facts/Standard_Chinese_phonology/Bl7Mr2RM">Standard Chinese phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Standard_Cantonese/y5UhgScP">Cantonese</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Chinese_characters/5pn1PFvj">早餐</a> / <i>zou2 caan1</i></td><td>/t͡sou˧˥ t͡sʰaːn˥/</td><td>'breakfast'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Cantonese_phonology/VcGG3tAD">Cantonese phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Czech_language/ySvEftdh">Czech</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Czech_orthography/9qCd4huk">co</a></i></td><td>[t̻͡s̪o̝]</td><td>'what'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Czech_phonology/UJYRAndV">Czech phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Hungarian_language/nt4g0ano">Hungarian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Hungarian_orthography/o5VY2Eck">cica</a></i></td><td>[ˈt̻͡s̪it̻͡s̪ɒ]</td><td>'kitten'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Hungarian_phonology/TXf5qlfU">Hungarian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Japanese_language/EEv485a5">Japanese</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Kanji/E1IN7hVL">津波</a> / tsunami</td><td>[t̻͡s̪ɯ̟ᵝnämʲi]</td><td>'Tsunami'</td><td>Allophone of /t/ before /u/. See <a href="/facts/Japanese_phonology/PvY84Cf1">Japanese phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Katakana/mmdWMTNr">モッツァレラ</a>/mottsarera</td><td>[mo̞t̻t̻͡s̪äɾe̞ɾä]</td><td>'mozzarella'</td><td>May appear before other vowels in <a href="/facts/Gairaigo/KCk6c5pI">loanwords</a>. See <a href="/facts/Japanese_phonology/PvY84Cf1">Japanese phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Kashmiri_language/b35X0L3H">Kashmiri</a></td><td>ژاس/cás</td><td>[t͡saːs]</td><td>'cough'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Kashubian_language/gs64oDQe">Kashubian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></td><td>[<i>example needed</i>]</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Kazakh_language/rh22ccFt">Kazakh</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Kazakh_alphabets/0yhntQvY">инвестиция</a>/investitsiya</td><td rowspan="2">[investit̻͡s̪əja]</td><td rowspan="2">'price'</td><td rowspan="2">Only in loanwords from Russian<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Kazakh_phonology/rh22ccFt">Kazakh phonology</a> and <a href="/facts/Kyrgyz_phonology/lS8lI2TT">Kyrgyz phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Kyrgyz_language/jnuN76wT">Kyrgyz</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Latvian_language/1LRCJorI">Latvian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Latvian_orthography/x6bjPDS5">cena</a></i></td><td>[ˈt̻͡s̪en̪ä]</td><td>'price'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Latvian_phonology/vevNL9yu">Latvian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Macedonian_language/FdnWMYBR">Macedonian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Macedonian_alphabet/Uj8uNX8C">цвет</a>/cvet</td><td>[t̻͡s̪ve̞t̪]</td><td>'flower'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Macedonian_phonology/711EIurp">Macedonian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Pashto_language/hc2ndCqx">Pashto</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pashto_alphabet/I39tJ6pD">څــلور</a>/cëlor</td><td>[ˌt͡səˈlor]</td><td>'four'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Pashto_phonology/JvqbcVPr">Pashto phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Polish_language/lzpvYDvV">Polish</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Polish_orthography/BBpK4VAt">co</a></i></td><td>[t̻͡s̪ɔ]ⓘ</td><td>'what'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Polish_phonology/tEdotI3h">Polish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Romanian_language/zAY3GnkL">Romanian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Romanian_alphabet/B6nm24Q6">preț</a></i></td><td>[pre̞t̻͡s̪]</td><td>'price'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Romanian_phonology/WBLopvtW">Romanian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Russian_language/ETXrTgHV">Russian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Russian_orthography/Kqy6hRtX">царь</a>/caŕ</td><td>[t̻͡s̪ärʲ]</td><td>'<a href="/facts/Tsar/qTE59C0T">Tsar</a>'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Russian_phonology/JCPYSFSV">Russian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Serbo-Croatian/MS85Xuwk">Serbo-Croatian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Serbian_Cyrillic_alphabet/d5s1lFk2">циљ</a> / <i><a href="/facts/Gaj%27s_Latin_alphabet/hxF8FTpe">cilj</a></i> / <a href="/facts/Arebica/WhRRSrYN">ڄیڵ</a></td><td>[t̻͡s̪îːʎ]</td><td>'target'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Serbo-Croatian_phonology/RgNSQU8A">Serbo-Croatian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Slovak_language/HmmobnJ8">Slovak</a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Slovak_orthography/NCxQPLa8">cisár</a></i></td><td>[t̻͡s̪isaːr]</td><td>'emperor'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Slovak_phonology/8Az5gDY9">Slovak phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Slovene_language/09YPyUQr">Slovene</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Slovene_orthography/U2wY1Aj3">cvet</a></i></td><td>[t̻͡s̪ʋêːt̪]</td><td>'bloom'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Slovene_phonology/cC0He05j">Slovene phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Tyap_language/lu75RmGl">Tyap</a></td><td><i>tsa</i></td><td>[t͡sa]</td><td>'to begin'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Ukrainian_language/2zDw7rpD">Ukrainian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Ukrainian_alphabet/RXdMx44m">цей</a>/cej</td><td>[t̻͡s̪ɛj]</td><td>'this one'</td><td>Contrasting <a href="/facts/Palatalization_(phonetics)/LXAIp4TB">palatalization</a>. See <a href="/facts/Ukrainian_phonology/tMNnkv5W">Ukrainian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Upper_Sorbian_language/DuARBHID">Upper Sorbian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></td><td><i>cybla</i></td><td>[ˈt̻͡s̪ɘblä]</td><td>'onion'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Uzbek_language/ovLJMy4J">Uzbek</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a></td><td>[<i>example needed</i>]</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Non-retracted alveolar</h4> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2">Language</th><th>Word</th><th><a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">IPA</a></th><th>Meaning</th><th>Notes</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Arabic/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Najdi_Arabic/lud8PunT">Najdi</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Arabic_alphabet/hCA1a0xq">كلب</a>/tsalb</td><td>[t͡salb]</td><td>'dog'</td><td>Corresponds to /k/ and /t͡ʃ/ in other dialects</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Asturian_language/VACemynx">Asturian</a></td><td>Some dialects<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></td><td><i>otso</i></td><td>[ˈot͡so]</td><td>'eight'</td><td>Corresponds to standard /t͡ʃ/</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Lena,_Asturias/ld82T1Eg">Ḷḷena</a>, <a href="/facts/Mieres/R97XLKN6">Mieres</a>, and others</td><td>ḷḷuna</td><td>[ˈt͡sunɐ]</td><td>'moon'</td><td>Alveolar realization of <a href="/facts/%E1%B8%B6/0Ge4MIc9">che vaqueira</a> instead of normal retroflex [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_retroflex_affricate/XotLkK7g">ʈ͡ʂ</a>]</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Basque_language/rEMpH97p">Basque</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Basque_alphabet/7Awejcam">hots</a></i></td><td>[ot̻͡s̺]</td><td>'sound'</td><td>The fricative component is apical. Contrasts with a laminal affricate with a dentalized fricative component.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Catalan_language/W2uTbK8Q">Catalan</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Catalan_orthography/EuUUrU6u">potser</a></i></td><td>[puˈt̻͡s̺(ː)e]</td><td>'maybe'</td><td>The fricative component is apical. Only restricted to morpheme boundaries, some linguistics do not consider it a phoneme (but a sequence of [t] + [s]). Long and short versions of intervocalic affricates are in free variation in Central Catalan [tsː] ~ [ts]. See <a href="/facts/Catalan_phonology/Hlw9yKdg">Catalan phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Central_Alaskan_Yup%27ik_language/hmyAQv5C">Central Alaskan Yup'ik</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a></td><td><i>cetaman</i></td><td>[t͡səˈtaman]</td><td>'four'</td><td>Allophone of /t͡ʃ/ before <a href="/facts/Schwa/5TvL9LSb">schwa</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Chamorro_language/VMD9JwSQ">Chamorro</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a></td><td><i>CHamoru</i></td><td>[t͡sɑˈmoːɾu]</td><td>'Chamorro'</td><td>Spelled <i>Chamoru</i> in the orthography used in the <a href="/facts/Northern_Mariana_Islands/Tb6CPrao">Northern Mariana Islands</a>.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Chechen_language/mCR0dGnY">Chechen</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cyrillic_script/0btN3oWC">цаца</a> / <i>caca</i> / ر̤ار̤ا</td><td>[t͡sət͡sə]</td><td>'sieve'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Cherokee_language/10EL54YL">Cherokee</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cherokee_syllabary/ax9BHa0J">ᏣᎳᎩ</a> <i><i>tsalagi</i></i></td><td>[t͡salaɡi]</td><td>'Cherokee'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Danish_language/sTcGXTMJ">Danish</a></td><td>Standard<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Danish_orthography/5R0QPeuD">to</a></i></td><td>[ˈt̻͡s̺ʰoːˀ]</td><td>'two'</td><td>The fricative component is apical.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> In some accents, it is realized as [tʰ].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> Usually transcribed /tˢ/ or /t/. Contrasts with the unaspirated stop [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive/1GaDe2Vy">t</a>], which is usually transcribed /d̥/ or /d/. See <a href="/facts/Danish_phonology/pcTRA2ln">Danish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Dargwa_language/gkDSvXbI">Dargwa</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cyrillic_script/0btN3oWC">цадеш</a> / <i>ꞩadeş</i> / ڝادەش</td><td>[t͡sadeʃ]</td><td>'unity, oneness'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Dutch_language/yIB5lbsx">Dutch</a></td><td>Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a></td><td><i>mat</i></td><td>[ˈmät͡s]</td><td>'market'</td><td>Optional pre-pausal allophone of /t/.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Orsmaal-Gussenhoven_dialect_phonology/BhApVJN1">Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="8"><a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English</a></td><td>Broad <a href="/facts/Cockney/9agMjMmd">Cockney</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a></td><td rowspan="7"><a href="/facts/English_orthography/1Exe2W6G">tea</a></td><td>[ˈt͡səˑi̯]</td><td rowspan="7">'tea'</td><td rowspan="2">Possible word-initial, intervocalic and word-final allophone of /t/.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/English_phonology/awcxPhHL">English phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Received_Pronunciation/YRBWev67">Received Pronunciation</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a></td><td rowspan="3">[ˈt͡sɪˑi̯]</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/New_York_City_English/yvsPeYpX">New York</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a></td><td>Possible syllable-initial and sometimes also utterance-final allophone of /t/.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/English_phonology/awcxPhHL">English phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/New_Zealand_English/sMLCt6FI">New Zealand</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a></td><td>Word-initial allophone of /t/.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/English_phonology/awcxPhHL">English phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Welsh_English/78zM2R0f">North Wales</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a></td><td rowspan="3">[ˈt͡siː]</td><td>Word-initial and word-final allophone of /t/; in free variation with a strongly aspirated stop [tʰ].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/English_phonology/awcxPhHL">English phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Port_Talbot_English/CrXuSnnF">Port Talbot</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a></td><td>Allophone of /t/. In free variation with [tʰʰ].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Scouse/Kj562h7y">Scouse</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a></td><td>Possible syllable-initial and word-final allophone of /t/.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/English_phonology/awcxPhHL">English phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td>General <a href="/facts/South_African_English/5IIVeacu">South African</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/English_orthography/1Exe2W6G">wanting</a></i></td><td>[ˈwɑnt͡sɪŋ]</td><td>'wanting'</td><td>Possible syllable-final allophone of /t/.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Esperanto/5cWPoLuM">Esperanto</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Esperanto_orthography/d7JmL8aW"><i>cico</i></a></td><td>['t͡sit͡so]</td><td>'nipple'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Esperanto_phonology/n7bpBg1U">Esperanto phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Filipino_language/sFspmMjH">Filipino</a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Filipino_alphabet/myJqsmz2">tsokolate</a></i></td><td>[t͡sokɔlate]</td><td>'chocolate'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/French_language/qe1DnaQh">French</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Quebec_French/WG9pg3Tf">Quebec</a></td><td><i>tu</i></td><td>[t͡sy]</td><td>'you'</td><td>Allophone of /t/ before /i, y/.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Georgian_language/DoKtMLfq">Georgian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Georgian_scripts/43Afaqmj">კაცი</a>/k'atsi</td><td>[kʼɑt͡si]</td><td>'man'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Haida_language/eagRtcgI">Haida</a></td><td><i>x̱ants</i></td><td>[ʜʌnt͡s]</td><td>'shadow'</td><td>Allophone of /t͡ʃ/.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Luxembourgish_language/HsVzn2YA">Luxembourgish</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a></td><td><i>Zuch</i></td><td>[t͡suχ]</td><td>'train'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Luxembourgish_phonology/AvfPMEy5">Luxembourgish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Marathi_language/uIJuwlFW">Marathi</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Marathi_phonology/kjXbd1r6">चमचा</a>/tsamtsā</td><td>['t͡səmt͡saː]</td><td>'spoon'</td><td>Represented by /च/, which also represents [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate/14FYMJvN">t͡ʃ</a>]. It is not a marked difference.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nepali_language/TSC8VdAw">Nepali</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Devan%C4%81gar%C4%AB/dQvQ3Ufs"> चाप</a>/tsāp</td><td>[t͡säp]</td><td>'pressure'</td><td>Contrasts aspirated and unaspirated versions. The unaspirated is represented by /च/. The aspirated sound is represented by /छ/. See <a href="/facts/Nepali_phonology/5gEhrASB">Nepali phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><a href="/facts/Portuguese_language/vr3Fwzw3">Portuguese</a></td><td><a href="/facts/European_Portuguese/RTuCpyhE">European</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Portuguese_orthography/B6H9WRGa">parte sem vida</a></i></td><td>[ˈpaɾt͡sẽj ˈviðɐ]</td><td>'lifeless part'</td><td rowspan="2">Allophone of /<a href="/facts/Voiceless_dental_plosive/1GaDe2Vy">t</a>/ before /i, ĩ/, or assimilation due to the deletion of /i ~ ɨ ~ e/. Increasingly used in Brazil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Brazilian_Portuguese/9wrGa38X">Brazilian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a></td><td><i><i><a href="/facts/Portuguese_orthography/B6H9WRGa">participação</a></i></i></td><td>[paʁt͡sipaˈsɐ̃w̃]</td><td>'participation'</td></tr><tr><td>Most speakers<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Portuguese_orthography/B6H9WRGa">shiatsu</a></i></td><td>[ɕiˈat͡su]</td><td>'<a href="/facts/Shiatsu/NBjVAxvo">shiatsu</a>'</td><td>Marginal sound. Many Brazilians might break the affricate with epenthetic [i], often subsequently palatalizing /t/, specially in pre-tonic contexts (e.g. <i>tsunami</i> [tɕisuˈnɜ̃mʲi]).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Portuguese_phonology/hu1DbLe8">Portuguese phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4"><a href="/facts/Spanish_language/95BgYNfv">Spanish</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Spanish_dialects_and_varieties/hUuIqJdd">Madrid</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a></td><td rowspan="2"><i><a href="/facts/Spanish_orthography/DNP7QG9J">ancha</a></i></td><td rowspan="2">[ˈänʲt͡sʲä]</td><td rowspan="2">'wide'</td><td rowspan="3">Palatalized;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> with an apical fricative component. It corresponds to [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate/14FYMJvN">t͡ʃ</a>] in standard Spanish. See <a href="/facts/Spanish_phonology/y7knma4G">Spanish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Chilean_Spanish/nMPsQSfQ">Chilean</a></td></tr><tr><td>Some <a href="/facts/Rioplatense_Spanish/0brAmKvX">Rioplatense</a> dialects</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Spanish_orthography/DNP7QG9J">tía</a></i></td><td>['t͡siä]</td><td>'aunt'</td></tr><tr><td>Some <a href="/facts/Venezuelan_Spanish/anXGa8k8">Venezuelan</a> dialects</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Spanish_orthography/DNP7QG9J">zorro</a></i></td><td>[ˈ t͡so̞ro̞]</td><td>'fox'</td><td>Allophone of /s/ word initially.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Tamil_language/7I0lHL0d">Tamil</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Jaffna_Tamil_dialect/fxIsMxzl">Jaffna Tamil</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Tamil_script/QAEV8dJ5">சந்தை</a>/cantai</td><td>[t͡sɐn̪d̪ɛi̯]</td><td>'market'</td><td>Rare, other realizations include [t͡ʃ, ʃ, s].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Telugu_language/yV5dQWhw">Telugu</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Telugu_script/GzUHyXLb">ౘట్టి</a>/ĉaṭṭi</td><td>[t͡sɐʈʈi]</td><td>'pot'</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="voiceless-alveolar-non-sibilant-affricate">Voiceless alveolar non-sibilant affricate</h2> <h3>Features</h3> <ul><li>Its <a href="/facts/Manner_of_articulation/HxyCqDQC">manner of articulation</a> is <a href="/facts/Affricate/Fn2y7FIA">affricate</a>, which means it is produced by first stopping the airflow entirely, then allowing air flow through a constricted channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence.</li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Place_of_articulation/exCzaxeF">place of articulation</a> is <a href="/facts/Alveolar_consonant/B6VkW2EX">alveolar</a>, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the <a href="/facts/Alveolar_ridge/qxn0CvTN">alveolar ridge</a>, termed respectively <i><a href="/facts/Apical_consonant/L7691gMF">apical</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Laminal_consonant/EVA0SWmd">laminal</a></i>.</li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Phonation/u2IGLdgG">phonation</a> is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.</li> <li>It is an <a href="/facts/Oral_consonant/feM4cful">oral consonant</a>, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.</li> <li>It is a <a href="/facts/Central_consonant/YLATXvJW">central consonant</a>, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.</li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Airstream_mechanism/qooe2ESC">airstream mechanism</a> is <a href="/facts/Pulmonic_egressive/BICa0WA0">pulmonic</a>, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the <a href="/facts/Intercostal_muscle/SFCkv3vD">intercostal muscles</a> and <a href="/facts/Abdominal_muscles/HcTzDFL0">abdominal muscles</a>, as in most sounds.</li></ul> <h3>Occurrence</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2">Language</th><th>Word</th><th><a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">IPA</a></th><th>Meaning</th><th>Notes</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Dutch_language/yIB5lbsx">Dutch</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Orsmaal-Gussenhoven_dialect/BhApVJN1">Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Dutch_alphabet/BHW9KxMr">verbèganger</a></i></td><td>[vərˈbɛːɣäŋət͡ɹ̝̊]</td><td>'passer-by'</td><td>A possible realization of word-final /r/ before pauses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English</a></td><td><a href="/facts/General_American/gmHBob3k">General American</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a></td><td rowspan="2"><i><a href="/facts/English_alphabet/mn9BMaDw">tree</a></i></td><td rowspan="2">[t͡ɹ̝̊ʷɪi̯]ⓘ</td><td rowspan="2">'tree'</td><td rowspan="2">Phonetic realization of the stressed, syllable-initial sequence /tr/; more commonly postalveolar [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_postalveolar_non-sibilant_affricate/14FYMJvN">t̠ɹ̠̊˔</a>].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/English_phonology/awcxPhHL">English phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Received_Pronunciation/YRBWev67">Received Pronunciation</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Italian_language/YXsmvlQG">Italian</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Sicily/E6fug03z">Sicily</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Italian_orthography/QP2BJ6J7">straniero</a></i></td><td>[st͡ɹ̝̊äˈnjɛɾo]</td><td>'foreign'</td><td>Apical. Regional realization of the sequence /tr/; may be a sequence [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive/1GaDe2Vy">t</a><a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative/WLKtEYDe">ɹ̝̊</a>] or [<a href="/facts/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive/1GaDe2Vy">t</a><a href="/facts/Voiced_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative/TtHwyzp6">ɹ̝</a>] instead.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Italian_phonology/6ClLWgLo">Italian phonology</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Index_of_phonetics_articles/IwhbEHGN">Index of phonetics articles</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <ul><li>Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282778721">"New Zealand English"</a>. <i><a href="/facts/Journal_of_the_International_Phonetic_Association/d94UV5qT">Journal of the International Phonetic Association</a></i>. 37 (1): 97–102. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100306002830">10.1017/S0025100306002830</a>.</li> <li>Canepari, Luciano (1992). <i>Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana</i> [<i>Handbook of Italian Pronunciation</i>] (in Italian). Bologna: Zanichelli. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 88-08-24624-8.</li> <li>Chew, Peter A. (2003). <i>A computational phonology of Russian</i>. Dissertation.com. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-58112-178-0.</li> <li>Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2013) [First published 2003]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=faVJTQIw9eQC"><i>Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students</i></a> (3rd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-50650-2.</li> <li>Cruttenden, Alan (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ"><i>Gimson's Pronunciation of English</i></a> (8th ed.). Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781444183092.</li> <li>Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100312000278">"Luxembourgish"</a>. <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. 43 (1): 67–74. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100312000278">10.1017/S0025100312000278</a>.</li> <li>Grønnum, Nina (2005). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ"><i>Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk</i></a> (3rd ed.). Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 87-500-3865-6.</li> <li>Hualde, José Ignacio; Lujanbio, Oihana; Zubiri, Juan Joxe (2010). <a href="http://prosody.beckman.illinois.edu/jihualde/objects/pubs/Hualde-Lujanbio-Zubiri.pdf">"Goizueta Basque"</a> (PDF). <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. 40 (1): 113–127. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100309990260">10.1017/S0025100309990260</a>.</li> <li>Jacobson, Steven (1995). <i>A Practical Grammar of the Central Alaskan Yup'ik Eskimo Language</i>. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-55500-050-9.</li> <li>Kara, Dávid Somfai (2002). <i>Kazak</i>. Lincom Europa. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9783895864704.</li> <li>Kara, Dávid Somfai (2003). <i>Kyrgyz</i>. Lincom Europa. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3895868434.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Snje%C5%BEana_Kordi%C4%87/CJtCfWCC">Kordić, Snježana</a> (2006). <i>Serbo-Croatian</i>. Languages of the World/Materials. Vol. 148. Lincom Europa. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-89586-161-8.</li> <li>Kozintseva, Natalia (1995). <i>Modern Eastern Armenian</i>. Lincom Europa. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3895860352.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Peter_Ladefoged/GPHjbHmP">Ladefoged, Peter</a>; <a href="/facts/Ian_Maddieson/p0cyavQ2">Maddieson, Ian</a> (1996). <a href="/facts/The_Sounds_of_the_World%27s_Languages/Je2AlBAP"><i>The Sounds of the World's Languages</i></a>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-631-19815-6.</li> <li>Landau, Ernestina; Lončarić, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999). "Croatian". <i>Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 66–69. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-521-65236-7.</li> <li>Lee, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (2003). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001208">"Standard Chinese (Beijing)"</a>. <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. 33 (1): 109–112. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001208">10.1017/S0025100303001208</a>.</li> <li>Lewis, Jr., Robert Eugene (2013). <a href="http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/handle/1808/12235/Lewis_ku_0099M_12920_DATA_1.pdf"><i>Complementizer Agreement in Najdi Arabic</i></a> (PDF) (MA thesis). University of Kansas.</li> <li>Lin, Hua (2001). <i>A Grammar of Mandarin Chinese</i>. Lincom Europa. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-89586-642-3.</li> <li>Lunt, Horace G. (1952). <i>Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language</i>. Skopje. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5137976">5137976</a>.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Max_Mangold/Tf0rEtvp">Mangold, Max</a> (2005) [First published 1962]. <i>Das Aussprachewörterbuch</i> (6th ed.). Mannheim: Dudenverlag. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-411-04066-7.</li> <li>Nau, Nicole (1998). <i>Latvian</i>. Lincom Europa. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-89586-228-2.</li> <li>Padluzhny, Ped (1989), <i>Fanetyka belaruskai litaraturnai movy</i>, Навука і тэхніка, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 5-343-00292-7</li> <li>Palková, Zdena (1994), <i>Fonetika a fonologie češtiny</i>, Karolinum, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-8070668436</li> <li>Penhallurick, Robert (2004). "Welsh English: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.). <i>A handbook of varieties of English</i>. Vol. 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 98–112. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-11-017532-0.</li> <li>Peters, Jörg (2010). <a href="https://osf.io/rqyk9/download">"The Flemish–Brabant dialect of Orsmaal–Gussenhoven"</a>. <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. 40 (2): 239–246. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100310000083">10.1017/S0025100310000083</a>.</li> <li>Pretnar, Tone; Tokarz, Emil (1980). <i>Slovenščina za Poljake: Kurs podstawowy języka słoweńskiego</i>. Katowice: Uniwersytet Śląski. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/749222348">749222348</a>.</li> <li>Puppel, Stanisław; Nawrocka-Fisiak, Jadwiga; Krassowska, Halina (1977). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=izVHAAAAIAAJ"><i>A handbook of Polish pronunciation for English learners</i></a>. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9788301012885.</li> <li>Recasens, Daniel; Espinosa, Aina (2007). "An electropalatographic and acoustic study of affricates and fricatives in two Catalan dialects". <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. 37 (2): 143–172. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100306002829">10.1017/S0025100306002829</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14275190">14275190</a>.</li> <li>Rocławski, Bronisław (1976). <i>Zarys fonologii, fonetyki, fonotaktyki i fonostatystyki współczesnego języka polskiego</i>. Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Uczelniane Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4461438">4461438</a>.</li> <li>Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006). <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf">"Standard Georgian"</a> (PDF). <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>. 36 (2): 255–264. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100306002659">10.1017/S0025100306002659</a>.</li> <li>Sjoberg, Andrée F. (1963). <i>Uzbek Structural Grammar</i>. Uralic and Altaic Series. Vol. 18. Bloomington: Indiana University.</li> <li>Šewc-Schuster, Hinc (1984). <i>Gramatika hornjo-serbskeje rěče</i> (2nd ed.). Budyšin: Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1022846408">1022846408</a>.</li> <li>Szende, Tamás (1999). "Hungarian". <i>Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 104–107. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-521-65236-7.</li> <li><a href="/facts/John_C._Wells/1FpNz4VN">Wells, John C.</a> (1982). <i>Accents of English</i>. Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759">10.1017/CBO9780511611759</a>, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611766">10.1017/CBO9780511611766</a>. <a href="/facts/International_Standard_Book_Number/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-52128540-2 , 0-52128541-0 .</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://phoible.org/parameters?sSearch_0=ts">List of languages with [ts]</a> on <a href="/facts/PHOIBLE/2qqHhjzI">PHOIBLE</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Puppel, Nawrocka-Fisiak & Krassowska (1977:149), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:154) - Puppel, Stanisław; Nawrocka-Fisiak, Jadwiga; Krassowska, Halina (1977). A handbook of Polish pronunciation for English learners. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. ISBN 9788301012885. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=izVHAAAAIAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=izVHAAAAIAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Mangold (2005), pp. 50 and 52. - Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962]. Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.). Mannheim: Dudenverlag. ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Mangold (2005), pp. 50 and 52. - Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962]. Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.). Mannheim: Dudenverlag. ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Canepari (1992), pp. 75–76. - Canepari, Luciano (1992). Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana [Handbook of Italian Pronunciation] (in Italian). Bologna: Zanichelli. ISBN 88-08-24624-8. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Canepari (1992), pp. 75–76. - Canepari, Luciano (1992). Il MªPi – Manuale di pronuncia italiana [Handbook of Italian Pronunciation] (in Italian). Bologna: Zanichelli. ISBN 88-08-24624-8. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Kozintseva (1995), p. 6. - Kozintseva, Natalia (1995). Modern Eastern Armenian. Lincom Europa. ISBN 3895860352. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Hualde, Lujanbio & Zubiri (2010:1). Although this paper discusses mainly the Goizueta dialect, the authors state that it has "a typical, conservative consonant inventory for a Basque variety". - Hualde, José Ignacio; Lujanbio, Oihana; Zubiri, Juan Joxe (2010). "Goizueta Basque" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 40 (1): 113–127. doi:10.1017/S0025100309990260. <a href="http://prosody.beckman.illinois.edu/jihualde/objects/pubs/Hualde-Lujanbio-Zubiri.pdf" target="_blank">http://prosody.beckman.illinois.edu/jihualde/objects/pubs/Hualde-Lujanbio-Zubiri.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Hualde, Lujanbio & Zubiri (2010:1). Although this paper discusses mainly the Goizueta dialect, the authors state that it has "a typical, conservative consonant inventory for a Basque variety". - Hualde, José Ignacio; Lujanbio, Oihana; Zubiri, Juan Joxe (2010). "Goizueta Basque" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 40 (1): 113–127. doi:10.1017/S0025100309990260. <a href="http://prosody.beckman.illinois.edu/jihualde/objects/pubs/Hualde-Lujanbio-Zubiri.pdf" target="_blank">http://prosody.beckman.illinois.edu/jihualde/objects/pubs/Hualde-Lujanbio-Zubiri.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Padluzhny (1989), pp. 48–49. - Padluzhny, Ped (1989), Fanetyka belaruskai litaraturnai movy, Навука і тэхніка, ISBN 5-343-00292-7 <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Chew (2003), p. 67. - Chew, Peter A. (2003). A computational phonology of Russian. Dissertation.com. ISBN 978-1-58112-178-0. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 109–110. - Lee, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (2003). "Standard Chinese (Beijing)". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 33 (1): 109–112. doi:10.1017/S0025100303001208. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001208" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001208</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Lin (2001), pp. 17–25. - Lin, Hua (2001). A Grammar of Mandarin Chinese. Lincom Europa. ISBN 3-89586-642-3. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Palková (1994), pp. 234–235. - Palková, Zdena (1994), Fonetika a fonologie češtiny, Karolinum, ISBN 978-8070668436 <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Szende (1999), p. 104. - Szende, Tamás (1999). "Hungarian". Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 104–107. ISBN 0-521-65236-7. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Jerzy Treder. "Fonetyka i fonologia". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000614/http://www.rastko.net/rastko-ka/index2.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=227&pop=1&page=0&Itemid=26" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000614/http://www.rastko.net/rastko-ka/index2.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=227&pop=1&page=0&Itemid=26</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Kara (2002), p. 10. - Kara, Dávid Somfai (2002). Kazak. Lincom Europa. ISBN 9783895864704. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Kara (2002), p. 10. - Kara, Dávid Somfai (2002). Kazak. Lincom Europa. ISBN 9783895864704. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Kara (2003), p. 11. - Kara, Dávid Somfai (2003). Kyrgyz. Lincom Europa. ISBN 3895868434. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Kara (2003), p. 11. - Kara, Dávid Somfai (2003). Kyrgyz. Lincom Europa. ISBN 3895868434. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Nau (1998), p. 6. - Nau, Nicole (1998). Latvian. Lincom Europa. ISBN 3-89586-228-2. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Lunt (1952), p. 1. - Lunt, Horace G. (1952). Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language. Skopje. OCLC 5137976. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5137976" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5137976</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Rocławski (1976), pp. 160. - Rocławski, Bronisław (1976). Zarys fonologii, fonetyki, fonotaktyki i fonostatystyki współczesnego języka polskiego. Gdańsk: Wydawnictwo Uczelniane Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. OCLC 4461438. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4461438" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4461438</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Ovidiu Drăghici. "Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie" (PDF). Retrieved April 19, 2013.[permanent dead link] <a href="http://cis01.central.ucv.ro/litere/idd/cursuri/an_1/limba_rom_cont/lrc_an1_draghici.pdf" target="_blank">http://cis01.central.ucv.ro/litere/idd/cursuri/an_1/limba_rom_cont/lrc_an1_draghici.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Chew (2003), p. 67. - Chew, Peter A. (2003). A computational phonology of Russian. Dissertation.com. ISBN 978-1-58112-178-0. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Kordić (2006), p. 5. - Kordić, Snježana (2006). Serbo-Croatian. Languages of the World/Materials. Vol. 148. Lincom Europa. ISBN 3-89586-161-8. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Landau et al. (1999), p. 66. - Landau, Ernestina; Lončarić, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999). "Croatian". Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 66–69. ISBN 0-521-65236-7. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Pretnar & Tokarz (1980), p. 21. - Pretnar, Tone; Tokarz, Emil (1980). Slovenščina za Poljake: Kurs podstawowy języka słoweńskiego. Katowice: Uniwersytet Śląski. OCLC 749222348. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/749222348" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/749222348</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>S. Buk; J. Mačutek; A. Rovenchak (2008). "Some properties of the Ukrainian writing system". Glottometrics. 16: 63–79. arXiv:0802.4198. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Šewc-Schuster (1984), pp. 22, 38). - Šewc-Schuster, Hinc (1984). Gramatika hornjo-serbskeje rěče (2nd ed.). Budyšin: Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina. OCLC 1022846408. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1022846408" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1022846408</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Sjoberg (1963), p. 12. - Sjoberg, Andrée F. (1963). Uzbek Structural Grammar. Uralic and Altaic Series. Vol. 18. Bloomington: Indiana University. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Lewis, Jr. (2013), p. 5. - Lewis, Jr., Robert Eugene (2013). Complementizer Agreement in Najdi Arabic (PDF) (MA thesis). University of Kansas. <a href="http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/handle/1808/12235/Lewis_ku_0099M_12920_DATA_1.pdf" target="_blank">http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/handle/1808/12235/Lewis_ku_0099M_12920_DATA_1.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>"Normes ortográfiques, Academia de la Llingua Asturiana" (PDF) (in Asturian). p. 14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-03-23. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130323072940/http://www.academiadelallingua.com/diccionariu/normes.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130323072940/http://www.academiadelallingua.com/diccionariu/normes.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Hualde, Lujanbio & Zubiri (2010:1). Although this paper discusses mainly the Goizueta dialect, the authors state that it has "a typical, conservative consonant inventory for a Basque variety". - Hualde, José Ignacio; Lujanbio, Oihana; Zubiri, Juan Joxe (2010). "Goizueta Basque" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 40 (1): 113–127. doi:10.1017/S0025100309990260. <a href="http://prosody.beckman.illinois.edu/jihualde/objects/pubs/Hualde-Lujanbio-Zubiri.pdf" target="_blank">http://prosody.beckman.illinois.edu/jihualde/objects/pubs/Hualde-Lujanbio-Zubiri.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Hualde, Lujanbio & Zubiri (2010:1). Although this paper discusses mainly the Goizueta dialect, the authors state that it has "a typical, conservative consonant inventory for a Basque variety". - Hualde, José Ignacio; Lujanbio, Oihana; Zubiri, Juan Joxe (2010). "Goizueta Basque" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 40 (1): 113–127. doi:10.1017/S0025100309990260. <a href="http://prosody.beckman.illinois.edu/jihualde/objects/pubs/Hualde-Lujanbio-Zubiri.pdf" target="_blank">http://prosody.beckman.illinois.edu/jihualde/objects/pubs/Hualde-Lujanbio-Zubiri.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Recasens & Espinosa (2007), p. 144. - Recasens, Daniel; Espinosa, Aina (2007). "An electropalatographic and acoustic study of affricates and fricatives in two Catalan dialects". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 37 (2): 143–172. doi:10.1017/S0025100306002829. S2CID 14275190. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100306002829" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100306002829</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Jacobson (1995), p. 2. - Jacobson, Steven (1995). A Practical Grammar of the Central Alaskan Yup'ik Eskimo Language. Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center. ISBN 978-1-55500-050-9. <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Chung (2020), p. 645. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFChung2020 (help) <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Uchihara, Hiroto (2016). Tone and Accent in Oklahoma Cherokee. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-873944-9. <a href="978-0-19-873944-9" target="_blank">978-0-19-873944-9</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Grønnum (2005), p. 120. - Grønnum, Nina (2005). Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.). Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. ISBN 87-500-3865-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Grønnum (2005), p. 120. - Grønnum, Nina (2005). Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.). Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. ISBN 87-500-3865-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Grønnum (2005), p. 120. - Grønnum, Nina (2005). Fonetik og fonologi, Almen og Dansk (3rd ed.). Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag. ISBN 87-500-3865-6. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=9RtCAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Peters (2010), p. 240. - Peters, Jörg (2010). "The Flemish–Brabant dialect of Orsmaal–Gussenhoven". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 40 (2): 239–246. doi:10.1017/S0025100310000083. <a href="https://osf.io/rqyk9/download" target="_blank">https://osf.io/rqyk9/download</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Peters (2010), p. 240. - Peters, Jörg (2010). "The Flemish–Brabant dialect of Orsmaal–Gussenhoven". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 40 (2): 239–246. doi:10.1017/S0025100310000083. <a href="https://osf.io/rqyk9/download" target="_blank">https://osf.io/rqyk9/download</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Wells (1982), pp. 322–323. - Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759, 10.1017/CBO9780511611766. ISBN 0-52128540-2 , 0-52128541-0 . <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Wells (1982), p. 323. - Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759, 10.1017/CBO9780511611766. ISBN 0-52128540-2 , 0-52128541-0 . <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Cruttenden (2014), p. 172. - Cruttenden, Alan (2014). Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9781444183092. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Cruttenden (2014), p. 172. - Cruttenden, Alan (2014). Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9781444183092. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Wells (1982), p. 515. - Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759, 10.1017/CBO9780511611766. ISBN 0-52128540-2 , 0-52128541-0 . <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Wells (1982), p. 515. - Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759, 10.1017/CBO9780511611766. ISBN 0-52128540-2 , 0-52128541-0 . <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Bauer et al. (2007), p. 100. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBauer_et_al.2007 (help) <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Bauer et al. (2007), p. 100. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFBauer_et_al.2007 (help) <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Penhallurick (2004), pp. 108–109. - Penhallurick, Robert (2004). "Welsh English: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.). A handbook of varieties of English. Vol. 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 98–112. ISBN 3-11-017532-0. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Penhallurick (2004), pp. 108–109. - Penhallurick, Robert (2004). "Welsh English: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.). A handbook of varieties of English. Vol. 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 98–112. ISBN 3-11-017532-0. <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Connolly, John H. (1990). English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change. Multilingual Matters Ltd.; Channel View Publications. pp. 121–129. ISBN 1-85359-032-0. <a href="1-85359-032-0" target="_blank">1-85359-032-0</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Connolly, John H. (1990). English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change. Multilingual Matters Ltd.; Channel View Publications. pp. 121–129. ISBN 1-85359-032-0. <a href="1-85359-032-0" target="_blank">1-85359-032-0</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Wells (1982), p. 372. - Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759, 10.1017/CBO9780511611766. ISBN 0-52128540-2 , 0-52128541-0 . <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Wells (1982), p. 372. - Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511611759, 10.1017/CBO9780511611766. ISBN 0-52128540-2 , 0-52128541-0 . <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Collins & Mees (2013), p. 194. - Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2013) [First published 2003]. Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students (3rd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-50650-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=faVJTQIw9eQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=faVJTQIw9eQC</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Collins & Mees (2013), p. 194. - Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2013) [First published 2003]. Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students (3rd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-50650-2. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=faVJTQIw9eQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=faVJTQIw9eQC</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Shosted & Chikovani (2006), p. 255. - Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006). "Standard Georgian" (PDF). 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Retrieved 2014-12-12. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306041634/http://www.bibliotecadigital.ufmg.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1843/ALDR-6VTKAM/disserta__o_pdf_camila.pdf?sequence=1" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160306041634/http://www.bibliotecadigital.ufmg.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1843/ALDR-6VTKAM/disserta__o_pdf_camila.pdf?sequence=1</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Alice Telles de Paula. "Palatalization of dental occlusives /t/ and /d/ in the bilingual communities of Taquara and Panambi, RS" (PDF) (in Portuguese). p. 14. <a href="http://www.lume.ufrgs.br/bitstream/handle/10183/7992/000564044.pdf?sequence=1" target="_blank">http://www.lume.ufrgs.br/bitstream/handle/10183/7992/000564044.pdf?sequence=1</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>Camila Tavares Leite. "Seqüências de (oclusiva alveolar + sibilante alveolar) como um padrão inovador no português de Belo Horizonte" (PDF) (in Portuguese). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-06. Retrieved 2014-12-12. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306041634/http://www.bibliotecadigital.ufmg.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1843/ALDR-6VTKAM/disserta__o_pdf_camila.pdf?sequence=1" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160306041634/http://www.bibliotecadigital.ufmg.br/dspace/bitstream/handle/1843/ALDR-6VTKAM/disserta__o_pdf_camila.pdf?sequence=1</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Ana Beatriz Gonçalves de Assis. "Adaptações fonológicas na pronúncia de estrangeirismos do Inglês por falantes de Português Brasileiro" (PDF) (in Portuguese). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-12-13. Retrieved 2014-12-12. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141213031749/http://base.repositorio.unesp.br/bitstream/handle/11449/93952/assis_abg_me_arafcl.pdf?sequence=1" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20141213031749/http://base.repositorio.unesp.br/bitstream/handle/11449/93952/assis_abg_me_arafcl.pdf?sequence=1</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>Aline Aver Vanin. "A influência da percepção inferencial na formação de vogal epentética em estrangeirismos" (in Portuguese). <a href="http://revistaseletronicas.pucrs.br/ojs/index.php/letronica/article/download/5546/7072" target="_blank">http://revistaseletronicas.pucrs.br/ojs/index.php/letronica/article/download/5546/7072</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Klaus Kohler. 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Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 40 (2): 239–246. doi:10.1017/S0025100310000083. <a href="https://osf.io/rqyk9/download" target="_blank">https://osf.io/rqyk9/download</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Peters (2010), p. 240. - Peters, Jörg (2010). "The Flemish–Brabant dialect of Orsmaal–Gussenhoven". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 40 (2): 239–246. doi:10.1017/S0025100310000083. <a href="https://osf.io/rqyk9/download" target="_blank">https://osf.io/rqyk9/download</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>Cruttenden (2014), pp. 177, 186–188, 192. - Cruttenden, Alan (2014). Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9781444183092. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Cruttenden (2014), pp. 177, 186–188, 192. - Cruttenden, Alan (2014). Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9781444183092. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Cruttenden (2014), pp. 177, 186–188, 192. - Cruttenden, Alan (2014). Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9781444183092. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>Canepari (1992), p. 64. - Canepari, Luciano (1992). 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