Crest factor

<h2 id="examples">Examples</h2>
This table provides values for some <a href="/facts/Normalisable_wave_function/KgM5ykjY">normalized</a> <a href="/facts/Waveform/yAskMREw">waveforms</a>. All peak magnitudes have been normalized to 1.

<table><tbody><tr><th>Wave type</th><th>Waveform</th><th><a href="/facts/Root_mean_square/Cfmg7dws">RMS</a> value</th><th>Crest factor</th><th>PAPR (dB)</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Direct_current/r9MNUx84">DC</a></td><td></td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>0.0 dB</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Sine_wave/mD1CB09M">Sine wave</a></td><td></td><td> 1 2 ≈ 0.707 {\displaystyle {1 \over {\sqrt {2}}}\approx 0.707} <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a></td><td> 2 ≈ 1.414 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}\approx 1.414} </td><td>3.01 dB</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Rectifier/me8XDxND">Full-wave rectified</a> sine</td><td></td><td> 1 2 ≈ 0.707 {\displaystyle {1 \over {\sqrt {2}}}\approx 0.707} <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a></td><td> 2 ≈ 1.414 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}\approx 1.414} </td><td>3.01 dB</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Rectifier/me8XDxND">Half-wave rectified</a> sine</td><td></td><td> 1 2 = 0.5 {\displaystyle {1 \over 2}=0.5} <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a></td><td> 2 {\displaystyle 2\,} </td><td>6.02 dB</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Triangle_wave/72BUtbRl">Triangle wave</a></td><td></td><td> 1 3 ≈ 0.577 {\displaystyle {1 \over {\sqrt {3}}}\approx 0.577} </td><td> 3 ≈ 1.732 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {3}}\approx 1.732} </td><td>4.77 dB</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Square_wave_(waveform)/h1cWR1KM">Square wave</a></td><td></td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>0 dB</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Pulse-width_modulation/cqjcrYs7">PWM</a> signal V(t) ≥ 0.0 V</td><td></td><td> t 1 T {\displaystyle {\sqrt {\frac {t_{1}}{T}}}} <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a></td><td> T t 1 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {\frac {T}{t_{1}}}}} </td><td> 20 log ⁡ ( T t 1 ) {\displaystyle 20\log {\mathord {\left({\frac {T}{t_{1}}}\right)}}}  dB</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/QPSK/TFnpYe64">QPSK</a></td><td></td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1.761 dB<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/8PSK/TFnpYe64">8PSK</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>3.3 dB<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Phase-shift_keying/TFnpYe64">π⁄4-DQPSK</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>3.0 dB<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/OQPSK/TFnpYe64">OQPSK</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>3.3 dB<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/8VSB/vUX6TE9d">8VSB</a></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>6.5–8.1 dB<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/64QAM/02j52SWG">64QAM</a></td><td></td><td> 3 7 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {\frac {3}{7}}}} </td><td> 7 3 ≈ 1.528 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {\frac {7}{3}}}\approx 1.528} </td><td>3.7 dB<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a></td></tr><tr><td> ∞ {\displaystyle \infty } -QAM</td><td></td><td> 1 3 ≈ 0.577 {\displaystyle {1 \over {\sqrt {3}}}\approx 0.577} </td><td> 3 ≈ 1.732 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {3}}\approx 1.732} </td><td>4.8 dB<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/WCDMA/lhy2RrMw">WCDMA</a> downlink carrier</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>10.6 dB</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/OFDM/YhPkx5ql">OFDM</a></td><td></td><td></td><td>4</td><td>~12 dB</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/GMSK/wTx6Mump">GMSK</a></td><td></td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>0 dB</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Gaussian_noise/qermmC2q">Gaussian noise</a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Standard_deviation/qSug9BRl"> σ {\displaystyle \sigma } </a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a></td><td> ∞ {\displaystyle \infty } <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a></td><td> ∞ {\displaystyle \infty } dB</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Chirp/hCQrvcz8">Periodic chirp</a></td><td></td><td> 1 2 ≈ 0.707 {\displaystyle {1 \over {\sqrt {2}}}\approx 0.707} </td><td> 2 ≈ 1.414 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}\approx 1.414} </td><td>3.01 dB</td></tr></tbody></table>
Notes:

<ol><li>Crest factors specified for QPSK, QAM, WCDMA are typical factors needed for reliable communication, not the theoretical crest factors which can be larger.</li></ol>
<h2 id="crest-factor-reduction">Crest factor reduction</h2>
Many modulation techniques have been specifically designed to have <a href="/facts/Constant_envelope/jRz6sxl0">constant envelope</a> modulation, i.e., the minimum possible crest factor of 1:1.
In general, modulation techniques that have smaller crest factors usually transmit more bits per second than modulation techniques that have higher crest factors. This is because:

<ol><li>any given <a href="/facts/Linear_amplifier/7EU8jdBW">linear amplifier</a> has some "peak output power"—some maximum possible instantaneous peak amplitude it can support and still stay in the linear range;</li>
<li>the average power of the signal is the peak output power divided by the crest factor;</li>
<li>the number of bits per second transmitted (on average) is proportional to the average power transmitted (<a href="/facts/Shannon%25E2%2580%2593Hartley_theorem/nlWW6VAy">Shannon–Hartley theorem</a>).</li></ol>
<a href="/facts/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing/YhPkx5ql">Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing</a> (OFDM) is a very promising modulation technique; perhaps its biggest problem is its high crest factor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> Many crest factor reduction techniques (CFR) have been proposed for OFDM.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> The reduction in crest factor results in a system that can either transmit more bits per second with the same hardware, or transmit the same bits per second with <a href="/facts/Low-power_electronics/EwbH8r9B">lower-power</a> hardware (and therefore lower electricity costs<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> and less expensive hardware), or both. 
Over the years, numerous model-driven approaches have been proposed to reduce the PAPR in communication systems. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in exploring data-driven models for PAPR reduction as part of ongoing research in end-to-end communication networks. These data-driven models offer innovative solutions and new avenues of exploration to address the challenges posed by high PAPR effectively. By leveraging data-driven techniques, researchers aim to enhance the performance and efficiency of communication networks by optimizing power utilization.
<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>

<h3>Crest factor reduction methods</h3>
Various methods for crest factor reduction exist, such as peak windowing, <a href="/facts/Noise_shaping/Afg4289r">noise shaping</a>, pulse injection and peak cancellation.

<h2 id="applications">Applications</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Electrical_engineering/YYXW1KLW">Electrical engineering</a> — for describing the quality of an AC power waveform</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Oscillation/6vSrm84a">Vibration</a> analysis — for estimating the amount of impact <a href="/facts/Wear/2PxRQ1Ke">wear</a> in a <a href="/facts/Bearing_(mechanical)/Tb8HmHWt">bearing</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Radio/XFr909M2">Radio</a> and <a href="/facts/Audio_frequency/LzHtINcf">audio</a> electronics — for estimating the <a href="/facts/Headroom_(audio_signal_processing)/CpNdqSlw">headroom</a> required in a signal chain<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Music/wvCBQYQ3">Music</a> has a widely varying crest factor. Typical values for a processed mix are around 4–8 (which corresponds to 12–18 dB of headroom, usually involving <a href="/facts/Audio_level_compression/oVSzPxFY">audio level compression</a>), and 8–10 for an unprocessed recording (18–20 dB).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Physiology/fh25y2pQ">Physiology</a> — for analysing the sound of <a href="/facts/Snoring/tbKzxUnJ">snoring</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Clipping_(signal_processing)/jEekS8S4">Clipping (signal processing)</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Form_factor_(electronics)/lpdR1Rvo">Form factor (electronics)</a></li></ul>

<h3>General</h3>
 This article incorporates <a href="/facts/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States/Q1jvr96g">public domain material</a> from <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220122224547/https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm">Federal Standard 1037C</a>. <a href="/facts/General_Services_Administration/Np3opv9x">General Services Administration</a>. Archived from <a href="https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm">the original</a> on 2022-01-22. (in support of <a href="/facts/MIL-STD-188/D5rsvdsW">MIL-STD-188</a>).

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<ul><li>Definition of <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080628071722/http://www.atis.org/glossary/definition.aspx?id=2773">peak-to-average ratio</a> – ATIS (Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions) Telecom Glossary 2K</li>
<li>Definition of <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120318202105/http://www.atis.org/glossary/definition.aspx?id=6766">crest factor</a> – ATIS (Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions) Telecom Glossary 2K</li>
<li><a href="http://www.etti.unibw.de/labalive/tutorial/papr/">Peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) of OFDM systems - tutorial</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"Wireless 101: Peak to average power ratio (PAPR)". <a href="http://www.eetimes.com/design/microwave-rf-design/4017754/Wireless-101-Peak-to-average-power-ratio-PAPR-" target="_blank">http://www.eetimes.com/design/microwave-rf-design/4017754/Wireless-101-Peak-to-average-power-ratio-PAPR-</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">JBL Speaker Power Requirements, which is applying the IEC standard 268-5, itself more recently renamed to 60268-5 <a href="https://jblpro.com/en/site_elements/speaker-power-requirements-faq" target="_blank">https://jblpro.com/en/site_elements/speaker-power-requirements-faq</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">AES2-2012 standard, Annex B (Informative) Crest Factor, pp. 17-20 in the 2013-02-11 printing <a href="/wiki/Audio_Engineering_Society" target="_blank">/wiki/Audio_Engineering_Society</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">"Dr. Pro-Audio", Power handling, summarizes the various speaker standards <a href="http://www.doctorproaudio.com/doctor/temas/powerhandling.htm" target="_blank">http://www.doctorproaudio.com/doctor/temas/powerhandling.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">"RMS and Average Values for Typical Waveforms". Archived from the original on 2010-01-23. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100123085330/http://www.nessengr.com/techdata/rms/rms.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20100123085330/http://www.nessengr.com/techdata/rms/rms.html</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">"RMS and Average Values for Typical Waveforms". Archived from the original on 2010-01-23. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100123085330/http://www.nessengr.com/techdata/rms/rms.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20100123085330/http://www.nessengr.com/techdata/rms/rms.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">"RMS and Average Values for Typical Waveforms". Archived from the original on 2010-01-23. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100123085330/http://www.nessengr.com/techdata/rms/rms.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20100123085330/http://www.nessengr.com/techdata/rms/rms.html</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">"RMS and Average Values for Typical Waveforms". Archived from the original on 2010-01-23. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100123085330/http://www.nessengr.com/techdata/rms/rms.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20100123085330/http://www.nessengr.com/techdata/rms/rms.html</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Palicot, Jacques; Louët, Yves. POWER RATIO DEFINITIONS AND ANALYSIS IN SINGLE CARRIER MODULATIONS (PDF). IETR/Supélec - Campus de Rennes. p. 2. <a href="http://kilyos.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~signal/defevent/papers/cr1037.pdf" target="_blank">http://kilyos.ee.bilkent.edu.tr/~signal/defevent/papers/cr1037.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">"Read steer_rf_chapter1.pdf". Archived from the original on 2016-03-22. Retrieved 2014-12-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160322185955/http://www.readbag.com/ece-ucsb-yuegroup-teaching-ece594bb-lectures-steer-rf-chapter1" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160322185955/http://www.readbag.com/ece-ucsb-yuegroup-teaching-ece594bb-lectures-steer-rf-chapter1</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">"Read steer_rf_chapter1.pdf". Archived from the original on 2016-03-22. Retrieved 2014-12-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160322185955/http://www.readbag.com/ece-ucsb-yuegroup-teaching-ece594bb-lectures-steer-rf-chapter1" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160322185955/http://www.readbag.com/ece-ucsb-yuegroup-teaching-ece594bb-lectures-steer-rf-chapter1</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">"Read steer_rf_chapter1.pdf". Archived from the original on 2016-03-22. Retrieved 2014-12-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160322185955/http://www.readbag.com/ece-ucsb-yuegroup-teaching-ece594bb-lectures-steer-rf-chapter1" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160322185955/http://www.readbag.com/ece-ucsb-yuegroup-teaching-ece594bb-lectures-steer-rf-chapter1</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">"Transitioning transmitters to COFDM". Archived from the original on 2009-08-21. Retrieved 2009-06-17. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090821020320/http://broadcastengineering.com/mag/broadcasting_transitioning_transmitters_cofdm/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090821020320/http://broadcastengineering.com/mag/broadcasting_transitioning_transmitters_cofdm/</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">R. Wolf; F. Ellinger; R.Eickhoff; Massimiliano Laddomada; Oliver Hoffmann (14 July 2011). Periklis Chatzimisios (ed.). Mobile Lightweight Wireless Systems: Second International ICST Conference, Mobilight 2010, May 10-12, 2010, Barcelona, Spain, Revised Selected Papers. Springer. p. 164. ISBN 978-3-642-16643-3. Retrieved 13 December 2012. <a href="978-3-642-16643-3" target="_blank">978-3-642-16643-3</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">R. Wolf; F. Ellinger; R.Eickhoff; Massimiliano Laddomada; Oliver Hoffmann (14 July 2011). Periklis Chatzimisios (ed.). Mobile Lightweight Wireless Systems: Second International ICST Conference, Mobilight 2010, May 10-12, 2010, Barcelona, Spain, Revised Selected Papers. Springer. p. 164. ISBN 978-3-642-16643-3. Retrieved 13 December 2012. <a href="978-3-642-16643-3" target="_blank">978-3-642-16643-3</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Op Amp Noise Theory and Applications Archived 2014-11-30 at the Wayback Machine - 10.2.1 rms versus P-P Noise <a href="http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/sloa082/sloa082.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.ti.com/lit/ml/sloa082/sloa082.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Chapter 1 First-Order Low-Pass Filtered Noise - "The standard deviation of a Gaussian noise voltage is the root-mean-square or rms value of the voltage." <a href="http://users.ece.gatech.edu/mleach/ece6416/Labs/exp01.pdf" target="_blank">http://users.ece.gatech.edu/mleach/ece6416/Labs/exp01.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Noise: Frequently Asked Questions - "Noise theoretically has an unbounded distribution so that it should have an infinite crest factor" <a href="http://noisewave.com/faq.pdf" target="_blank">http://noisewave.com/faq.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Telecommunications Measurements, Analysis, and Instrumentation, Kamilo Feher, section 7.2.3 Finite Crest Factor Noise <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">"Crest Factor Reduction of an OFDM/WiMAX Network". <a href="http://www.apc.org/en/spectrum/pubs/crest-factor-reduction-ofdmwimax-network" target="_blank">http://www.apc.org/en/spectrum/pubs/crest-factor-reduction-ofdmwimax-network</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">"Low Crest Factor Modulation Techniques for Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)" Archived 2017-08-29 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="http://www.ubicc.org/files/pdf/UBICC_Eltholth_cf_115.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.ubicc.org/files/pdf/UBICC_Eltholth_cf_115.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">R. Neil Braithwaite.
"Crest Factor Reduction for OFDM Using Selective Subcarrier Degradation" Archived 2018-08-06 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="http://wwwen.zte.com.cn/endata/magazine/ztecommunications/2011Year/no4/articles/201202/t20120202_283037.html" target="_blank">http://wwwen.zte.com.cn/endata/magazine/ztecommunications/2011Year/no4/articles/201202/t20120202_283037.html</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">K. T. Wong, B. Wang & J.-C. Chen,
"OFDM PAPR Reduction by Switching Null Subcarriers & Data-Subcarriers," Electronics Letters, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 62-63 January, 2011 Archived 2015-09-23 at the Wayback Machine. <a href="http://www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/~enktwong/ktw/WongKT_EL0111.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/~enktwong/ktw/WongKT_EL0111.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">S.C. Thompson,
"Constant Envelope OFDM Phase Modulation," PhD Dissertation, UC San Diego, 2005. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080706134849/http://zeidler.ucsd.edu/students/thesis_sthompson.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20080706134849/http://zeidler.ucsd.edu/students/thesis_sthompson.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Nick Wells.
"DVB-T2 in relation to the DVB-x2 Family of Standards" Archived 2013-05-26 at the Wayback Machine
quote: "techniques which can reduce the PAPR, ... could result in a significant saving in electricity costs." <a href="http://www.atsc.org/cms/pdf/pt2/Wells_ATSC_paper_on_T2.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.atsc.org/cms/pdf/pt2/Wells_ATSC_paper_on_T2.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Huleihel, Yara; Ben-Dror, Eilam; Permuter, Haim H. (2020). Low PAPR Waveform Design for OFDM Systems Based on Convolutional Autoencoder. 2020 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Networks and Telecommunications Systems (ANTS). pp. 1–6. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">"What Is The "Crest Factor" And Why Is It Used?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2006-03-07. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927001050/http://www.dliengineering.com/downloads/crest%20factor.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110927001050/http://www.dliengineering.com/downloads/crest%20factor.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Crest factor analysis for complex signal processing Archived 2006-04-27 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://rfdesign.com/mag/radio_crest_factor_analysis/" target="_blank">http://rfdesign.com/mag/radio_crest_factor_analysis/</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">PAPR simulation for 64QAM <a href="http://www.rfconsult.uk/papr/" target="_blank">http://www.rfconsult.uk/papr/</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Crest factor definition — AES Pro Audio Reference <a href="http://www.aes.org/par/c/#cps" target="_blank">http://www.aes.org/par/c/#cps</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">"Level Practices in Digital Audio". Archived from the original on 2009-06-18. Retrieved 2009-10-11. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090618130742/http://www.digido.com/level-practices-part-1.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090618130742/http://www.digido.com/level-practices-part-1.html</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Gain Structure — Setting the System Levels Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine, Mackie Mixer Tips <a href="http://www.mackie.com/pdf/CMRefGuide/Tips_Ch4.pdf#page=2" target="_blank">http://www.mackie.com/pdf/CMRefGuide/Tips_Ch4.pdf#page=2</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Setting sound system level controls: The most expensive system set up wrong never performs as well as an inexpensive system set up correctly. <a href="http://digitalcontentproducer.com/mag/avinstall_setting_sound_system/index.html" target="_blank">http://digitalcontentproducer.com/mag/avinstall_setting_sound_system/index.html</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Palatal snoring identified by acoustic crest factor analysis <a href="http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0967-3334/20/2/306" target="_blank">http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0967-3334/20/2/306</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Crest factor open-in-new

Crest factor