Asteraceae

<h2 id="description">Description</h2>
Members of the Asteraceae are mostly herbaceous plants, but some shrubs, vines, and trees (such as <a href="/facts/Lachanodes_arborea/QkY7SW19">Lachanodes arborea</a>) do exist. Asteraceae species are generally easy to distinguish from other plants because of their unique <a href="/facts/Inflorescence/CvpNd4vS">inflorescence</a> and other shared characteristics, such as the joined anthers of the <a href="/facts/Stamen/MzNPVK3D">stamens</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> Nonetheless, determining genera and species of some groups such as <a href="/facts/Hieracium/JF7IYLeb">Hieracium</a> is notoriously difficult (see "<a href="/facts/Damned_yellow_composite/VgDBzfAh">damned yellow composite</a>" for example).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a>

<h3>Roots</h3>
Members of the family Asteraceae generally produce <a href="/facts/Taproot/b2Us8xW8">taproots</a>, but sometimes they possess fibrous root systems. Some species have underground stems in the form of <a href="/facts/Caudex/Qx9qbRTr">caudices</a> or <a href="/facts/Rhizome/wWDKJrSf">rhizomes</a>. These can be fleshy or woody depending on the species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a>

<h3>Stems</h3>
The stems are herbaceous, aerial, branched, and cylindrical with glandular hairs, usually erect, but can be prostrate to ascending. The stems can contain secretory canals with <a href="/facts/Resin/r1uVThQ8">resin</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> or <a href="/facts/Latex/c1lvjF0A">latex</a>, which is particularly common among the <a href="/facts/Cichorioideae/2P9p6Kna">Cichorioideae</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a>

<h3>Leaves</h3>
Leaves can be <a href="/facts/Alternate_leaf/1m6wCNTg">alternate</a>, <a href="/facts/Opposite_leaf/1m6wCNTg">opposite</a>, or <a href="/facts/Whorl_(botany)/dhD4zdUI">whorled</a>. They may be <a href="/facts/Simple_leaf/1m6wCNTg">simple</a>, but are often deeply <a href="/facts/Lobed_leaf/GfSyEn7C">lobed</a> or otherwise incised, often <a href="/facts/Conduplicate_leaf/GfSyEn7C">conduplicate</a> or <a href="/facts/Revolute_leaf/GfSyEn7C">revolute</a>. The margins also can be <a href="/facts/Entire_leaf/GfSyEn7C">entire</a> or <a href="/facts/Dentate_leaf/GfSyEn7C">toothed</a>. Resin<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> or latex<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> can also be present in the leaves.

<h3>Inflorescences</h3>

Nearly all Asteraceae bear their flowers in dense flower heads called capitula. They are surrounded by <a href="/facts/Bract/pnMGNMdn">involucral bracts</a>, and when viewed from a distance, each capitulum may appear to be a single flower. Enlarged outer (peripheral) flowers in the capitulum may resemble petals, and the involucral bracts may look like a calyx.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> Notable exceptions include <a href="/facts/Hecastocleis/DEKDNYbl">Hecastocleis shockleyi</a> (the only species in the subfamily Hecastocleidoideae)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> and the species of the genus <a href="/facts/Corymbium/M7MjMAtL">Corymbium</a> (the only genus in the subfamily Corymbioideae),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> which have one-flowered bisexual capitulas, <a href="/facts/Gundelia/EJlDMWF0">Gundelia</a> with one-flowered unisexual capitulas,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> and <a href="/facts/Gymnarrhena/cbT5Ctkx">Gymnarrhena micrantha</a> with one-flowered female capitulas and few flowered male capitulas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>

<h4>Floral heads</h4>

In plants of the Asteraceae, what appears to be a single "daisy"-type flower is actually a composite of several much smaller flowers, known as the capitulum or head. By visually presenting as a single flower, the capitulum functions in attracting pollinators, in the same manner that other "showy" flowering plants in numerous other, older, plant families have evolved to attract pollinators. The previous name for the family, Compositae, reflects the fact that what appears to be a single floral entity is in fact a composite of much smaller flowers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>
The "petals" or "sunrays" in an "asteraceous" head are in fact individual strap-shaped<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> flowers called ray flowers or ray florets, and the "sun disk" is made up of smaller, <a href="/facts/Radial_symmetry/FSv5Sv4y">radially symmetric</a>, individual flowers called disc flowers or disc florets. The word aster means "star" in Greek, referring to the appearance of most family members as a "celestial body with rays".
The capitulum, which often appears to be a single flower, is often referred to as a head.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> In some species, the entire head is able to pivot its floral stem in the course of the day to track the sun (like a "smart" solar panel), thus maximizing the reflectivity of the entire floral unit and further attracting flying pollinators.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a>
Nearest to the flower stem lie a series of small, usually green, scale-like <a href="/facts/Bract/pnMGNMdn">bracts</a>. These are known as <a href="/facts/Phyllary/Rx1lrbRC">phyllaries</a>; collectively, they form the <a href="/facts/Involucre/pnMGNMdn">involucre</a>, which serves to protect the immature head of florets during its development.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>: 29  The individual florets are arranged atop a dome-like structure called the receptacle.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>
The individual florets in a head consist, developmentally, of five fused petals (rarely four); instead of <a href="/facts/Sepal/rFYnXN4d">sepals</a>, they have threadlike, hairy, or bristly structures,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> known collectively as a <a href="/facts/Pappus_(flower_structure)/yYHn5pkj">pappus</a>, (plural pappi). The pappus surrounds the ovary and can, when mature and attached to a seed, adhere to animal fur or be carried by air currents, aiding in seed dispersal. The whitish, fluffy head of a <a href="/facts/Dandelion/VlPP0mTn">dandelion</a>, commonly blown on by children, consists of numerous seeds resting on the receptacle, each seed attached to its pappus. The pappi provide a parachute-like structure to help the seed travel from its point of origin to a more hospitable site.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>

A ray flower is a two - or three-lobed, strap-shaped, individual flower, found in the head of most members of the Asteraceae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> The <a href="/facts/Petal/BcMcG97l">corolla</a> of the ray flower may have two tiny, <a href="/facts/Vestigial/sYfUsCQX">vestigial</a> teeth, opposite to the three-lobed strap, or tongue, indicating its evolution by fusion from an ancestral, five-part corolla. In some species, the 3:2 arrangement is reversed, with two lobes, and zero or three tiny teeth visible opposite the tongue.
A ligulate flower is a five-lobed, strap-shaped, individual flower found in the heads of certain other asteraceous species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> A ligule is the strap-shaped tongue of the corolla of either a ray flower or of a ligulate flower.[example needed]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> A disk flower (or disc flower) is a radially symmetric individual flower in the head, which is ringed by the ray flowers when both are present.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> In some species, ray flowers may be arranged around the disc in irregular symmetry, or with a weakly <a href="/facts/Bilateral_symmetry/FSv5Sv4y">bilaterally symmetric</a> arrangement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a>

<h2 id="variations">Variations</h2>
A radiate head has disc flowers surrounded by ray flowers. A ligulate head has all ligulate flowers and no disc flowers. When an Asteraceae flower head has only disc flowers that are either sterile, male, or <a href="/facts/Plant_reproductive_morphology/Up20kQT3">bisexual</a> (but not female and fertile), it is a discoid head.
Disciform heads possess only disc flowers in their heads, but may produce two different sex types (male or female) within their disciform head.
Some other species produce two different head types: staminate (all-male), or pistillate (all-female). In a few unusual species, the "head" will consist of one single disc flower; alternatively, a few species will produce both single-flowered female heads, along with multi-flowered male heads, in their "pollination strategy".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>

<h3>Floral structures</h3>

The distinguishing characteristic of Asteraceae is their <a href="/facts/Inflorescence/CvpNd4vS">inflorescence</a>, a type of specialised, composite flower head or <a href="/facts/Pseudanthium/ANBv3Iym">pseudanthium</a>, technically called a calathium or <a href="/facts/Pseudanthium/ANBv3Iym">capitulum</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> that may look superficially like a single flower. The capitulum is a contracted <a href="/facts/Raceme/lXl4udlJ">raceme</a> composed of numerous individual <a href="/facts/Sessility_(botany)/ySFsrG7S">sessile</a> flowers, called florets, all sharing the same <a href="/facts/Receptacle_(botany)/sUVrrdwS">receptacle</a>.
A set of <a href="/facts/Bract/pnMGNMdn">bracts</a> forms an <a href="/facts/Involucral_bract/pnMGNMdn">involucre</a> surrounding the base of the capitulum. These are called "phyllaries", or "involucral bracts". They may simulate the sepals of the pseudanthium. These are mostly herbaceous but can also be brightly coloured (e.g. <a href="/facts/Helichrysum/pI0FYV7t">Helichrysum</a>) or have a scarious (dry and membranous) texture. The phyllaries can be free or fused, and arranged in one to many rows, overlapping like the tiles of a roof (imbricate) or not (this variation is important in identification of tribes and genera).
Each floret may be subtended by a bract, called a "palea" or "receptacular bract". These bracts are often called "<a href="/facts/Chaff/ED4wb3yK">chaff</a>". The presence or absence of these bracts, their distribution on the receptacle, and their size and shape are all important diagnostic characteristics for genera and tribes.
The florets have five petals fused at the base to form a <a href="/facts/Corolla_(flower)/DQMkpRSm">corolla</a> tube and they may be either <a href="/facts/Actinomorphic/oJMuxKtL">actinomorphic</a> or <a href="/facts/Zygomorphic/oJMuxKtL">zygomorphic</a>. Disc florets are usually actinomorphic, with five petal lips on the rim of the corolla tube. The petal lips may be either very short, or long, in which case they form deeply lobed petals. The latter is the only kind of floret in the <a href="/facts/Carduoideae/xaJay5x6">Carduoideae</a>, while the first kind is more widespread. Ray florets are always highly <a href="/facts/Floral_symmetry/oJMuxKtL">zygomorphic</a> and are characterised by the presence of a ligule, a strap-shaped structure on the edge of the corolla tube consisting of fused petals. In the <a href="/facts/Asteroideae/gVpQzpvS">Asteroideae</a> and other minor subfamilies these are usually borne only on florets at the circumference of the capitulum and have a 3+2 scheme - above the fused corolla tube, three very long fused petals form the ligule, with the other two petals being inconspicuously small. The <a href="/facts/Cichorioideae/2P9p6Kna">Cichorioideae</a> has only ray florets, with a 5+0 scheme - all five petals form the ligule. A 4+1 scheme is found in the <a href="/facts/Barnadesioideae/sAEPMHWI">Barnadesioideae</a>. The tip of the ligule is often divided into teeth, each one representing a petal. Some marginal florets may have no petals at all (filiform floret).
The calyx of the florets may be absent, but when present is always modified into a <a href="/facts/Pappus_(botany)/yYHn5pkj">pappus</a> of two or more teeth, scales or bristles and this is often involved in the dispersion of the seeds. As with the bracts, the nature of the pappus is an important diagnostic feature.
There are usually four or five <a href="/facts/Stamen/MzNPVK3D">stamens</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> The filaments are fused to the corolla, while the anthers are generally <a href="/facts/Connation/mRNemMLW">connate</a> (syngenesious anthers), thus forming a sort of tube around the style (<a href="/facts/Theca/AcqcxD7p">theca</a>). They commonly have basal and/or apical appendages. Pollen is released inside the tube and is collected around the growing style, and then, as the style elongates, is pushed out of the tube (nüdelspritze).
The <a href="/facts/Pistil/P5qFQMk1">pistil</a> consists of two connate <a href="/facts/Carpel/P5qFQMk1">carpels</a>. The <a href="/facts/Carpel/P5qFQMk1">style</a> has two lobes. Stigmatic tissue may be located in the interior surface or form two lateral lines. The <a href="/facts/Ovary_(plants)/Qug4yDY4">ovary</a> is inferior and has only one <a href="/facts/Ovule/DFvS1VvA">ovule</a>, with basal <a href="/facts/Placentation/nqcxcaPM">placentation</a>.

<h3>Fruits and seeds</h3>
In members of the Asteraceae the fruit is <a href="/facts/Achene/8dm9UxMy">achene</a>-like, and is called a cypsela (plural cypselae). Although there are two fused carpels, there is only one locule, and only one seed per fruit is formed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> It may sometimes be winged or spiny because the pappus, which is derived from calyx tissue often remains on the fruit (for example in <a href="/facts/Dandelion/VlPP0mTn">dandelion</a>). In some species, however, the pappus falls off (for example in <a href="/facts/Helianthus/KIv0oR5w">Helianthus</a>). Cypsela <a href="/facts/Morphology_(biology)/Nl3B0myy">morphology</a> is often used to help determine plant relationships at the genus and species level.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> The mature seeds usually have little <a href="/facts/Endosperm/oGnmuWud">endosperm</a> or none.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a>

<h3>Pollen</h3>
The pollen of composites is typically echinolophate, a <a href="/facts/Morphology_(biology)/Nl3B0myy">morphological</a> term meaning "with elaborate systems of ridges and spines dispersed around and between the apertures."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a>

<h3>Metabolites</h3>
In Asteraceae, the energy store is generally in the form of <a href="/facts/Inulin/087d6jp2">inulin</a> rather than starch. They produce iso/<a href="/facts/Chlorogenic_acid/Q79UT6RR">chlorogenic acid</a>, <a href="/facts/Sesquiterpene/rFJG50mL">sesquiterpene</a> <a href="/facts/Lactones/UMgRUFtj">lactones</a>, pentacyclic triterpene alcohols, various <a href="/facts/Alkaloid/m6hUXohz">alkaloids</a>, <a href="/facts/Acetylene/yaDh6cmJ">acetylenes</a> (cyclic, aromatic, with vinyl end groups), <a href="/facts/Tannin/vKIvHoTX">tannins</a>. They have <a href="/facts/Terpene/hDD4zF6P">terpenoid</a> <a href="/facts/Essential_oil/cq8V5ocP">essential oils</a> that never contain <a href="/facts/Iridoid/PaeSlXUo">iridoids</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a>
Asteraceae produce <a href="/facts/Secondary_metabolites/mKnQjBQp">secondary metabolites</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Flavonoid/J7FEAtLE">flavonoids</a> and <a href="/facts/Terpenoid/1GvG7W7v">terpenoids</a>. Some of these molecules can inhibit <a href="/facts/Protozoa/JczTf25H">protozoan</a> parasites such as <a href="/facts/Plasmodium/Je91qK4F">Plasmodium</a>, <a href="/facts/Trypanosoma/8FQEE2VL">Trypanosoma</a>, <a href="/facts/Leishmania/HRBfbTYR">Leishmania</a> and parasitic intestinal worms, and thus have potential in medicine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a>

<h2 id="taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2>
<h3>History</h3>
Compositae, the original name for Asteraceae, were first described in 1740 by Dutch botanist <a href="/facts/Adriaan_van_Royen/TCt7GKxH">Adriaan van Royen</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a>: 117–118  Traditionally, two subfamilies were recognised: <a href="/facts/Asteroideae/gVpQzpvS">Asteroideae</a> (or Tubuliflorae) and <a href="/facts/Cichorioideae/2P9p6Kna">Cichorioideae</a> (or Liguliflorae).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>: 242  The latter has been shown to be extensively <a href="/facts/Paraphyletic/tmTWjACz">paraphyletic</a>, and has now been divided into 12 subfamilies, but the former still stands.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a>[needs update] The study of this family is known as <a href="/facts/Synantherology/4wRIWGnt">synantherology</a>.

<h3>Phylogeny</h3>
See also: <a href="/facts/List_of_Asteraceae_genera/A8ue9CYr">List of Asteraceae genera</a>
The <a href="/facts/Phylogenetic_tree/f5vVEpeY">phylogenetic tree</a> of subfamilies presented below is based on Panero & <a href="/facts/Vicki_Ann_Funk/ukfrC8TB">Funk</a> (2002)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> updated in 2014,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> and now also includes the monotypic <a href="/facts/Famatinanthoideae/dGUabJD2">Famatinanthoideae</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a>[needs update]
The diamond (♦) denotes a very poorly supported <a href="/facts/Cladistics/JasKVABk">node</a> (<50% bootstrap support), the dot (•) a poorly supported node (<80%).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>

<table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Barnadesioideae/sAEPMHWI">Barnadesioideae</a>: 9 genera, 93 species. <a href="/facts/South_America/PhrFEMk7">South America</a>, mainly the <a href="/facts/Andes/a4wlgG3e">Andes</a>.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Famatinanthoideae/dGUabJD2">Famatinanthoideae</a>: South America, 1 genus, 1 species <a href="/facts/Famatinanthus_decussatus/dGUabJD2">Famatinanthus decussatus</a>.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Mutisioideae/o3gl8Shg">Mutisioideae</a>: 58 genera, 750 species. Absent from Europe, mostly in South America.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Stifftioideae/YYtTmWfA">Stifftioideae</a>: 10 genera. South America.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td>♦</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Wunderlichioideae/2M0teFaU">Wunderlichioideae</a>: 8 genera, 24 species. Mostly in <a href="/facts/Venezuela/eX1qnkln">Venezuela</a> and <a href="/facts/Guyana/xxadP7zF">Guyana</a>.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Gochnatioideae/XlDsjm8L">Gochnatioideae</a>: 4 or 5 genera, 90 species. Latin America and southern United States.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Hecastocleidoideae/DEKDNYbl">Hecastocleidoideae</a>: Only <a href="/facts/Hecastocleis_shockleyi/DEKDNYbl">Hecastocleis shockleyi</a>. <a href="/facts/Southwestern_United_States/LjLFs9fC">Southwestern United States</a>.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Carduoideae/xaJay5x6">Carduoideae</a>: 83 genera, 2,500 species. Worldwide.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Pertyoideae/ywQuf7JP">Pertyoideae</a>: 5 or 6 genera, 70 species. Asia.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Gymnarrhenoideae/lzqnhfMR">Gymnarrhenoideae</a>: Two genera/species, <a href="/facts/Gymnarrhena_micrantha/cbT5Ctkx">Gymnarrhena micrantha</a> (<a href="/facts/Northern_Africa/ItxQAfs7">Northern Africa</a>, <a href="/facts/Middle_East/8CD6pLWv">Middle East</a>) and <a href="/facts/Cavea_tanguensis/hkNqCGpD">Cavea tanguensis</a> (<a href="/facts/Eastern_Himalayas/zkr63TIg">Eastern Himalayas</a>).</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td>•</td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Cichorioideae/2P9p6Kna">Cichorioideae</a>: 224 genera, 3,200 species. Worldwide.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Corymbioideae/M7MjMAtL">Corymbioideae</a>: Only the genus <a href="/facts/Corymbium/M7MjMAtL">Corymbium</a>, with 9 species. Cape provinces, South Africa.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td>•</td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Asteroideae/gVpQzpvS">Asteroideae</a>: 1,130 genera and 16,200 species. Worldwide.</td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table>
The family includes over 32,000 currently accepted species, in over 1,900 genera (<a href="/facts/List_of_Asteraceae_genera/A8ue9CYr">list</a>) in 13 subfamilies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a>[needs update] The number of species in the family Asteraceae is rivaled only by Orchidaceae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> Which is the larger family is unclear, because of the uncertainty about how many <a href="/facts/Extant_taxon/YK8uj7qU">extant</a> species each family includes. The four subfamilies <a href="/facts/Asteroideae/gVpQzpvS">Asteroideae</a>, <a href="/facts/Cichorioideae/2P9p6Kna">Cichorioideae</a>, <a href="/facts/Carduoideae/xaJay5x6">Carduoideae</a> and <a href="/facts/Mutisioideae/o3gl8Shg">Mutisioideae</a> contain 99% of the species diversity of the whole family (approximately 70%, 14%, 11% and 3% respectively).
Because of the <a href="/facts/Morphology_(biology)/Nl3B0myy">morphological</a> complexity exhibited by this family, agreeing on generic circumscriptions has often been difficult for <a href="/facts/Taxonomist/Qkg8wuyw">taxonomists</a>. As a result, several of these genera have required multiple revisions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a>

<h4>Paleontology and evolutionary processes</h4>
The oldest known fossils of members of Asteraceae are pollen grains from the <a href="/facts/Late_Cretaceous/pcHa4fBg">Late Cretaceous</a> of Antarctica, dated to ~76–66 mya (<a href="/facts/Campanian/MoPSxcqL">Campanian</a> to <a href="/facts/Maastrichtian/xRBafamu">Maastrichtian</a>) and assigned to the extant genus <a href="/facts/Dasyphyllum/VYsXbg7h">Dasyphyllum</a>. Barreda, et al. (2015) estimated that the <a href="/facts/Crown_group/fHDhwp5x">crown group</a> of Asteraceae evolved at least 85.9 mya (Late Cretaceous, <a href="/facts/Santonian/NWM9bl28">Santonian</a>) with a stem node age of 88–89 mya (Late Cretaceous, <a href="/facts/Coniacian/qgdmvQJP">Coniacian</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a>
It is not known whether the precise cause of their great success was the development of the highly specialised capitulum, their ability to store energy as <a href="/facts/Fructan/BeIM3gok">fructans</a> (mainly <a href="/facts/Inulin/087d6jp2">inulin</a>), which is an advantage in relatively dry zones, or some combination of these and possibly other factors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> Heterocarpy, or the ability to produce different fruit morphs, has evolved and is common in Asteraceae. It allows seeds to be dispersed over varying distances and each is adapted to different environments, increasing chances of survival.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a>

<h3>Etymology and pronunciation</h3>
The original name Compositae is still valid under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> It refers to the "composite" nature of the capitula, which consist of a few or many individual flowers.
The alternative (as it came later) name Asteraceae (English: /ˌæstəˈreɪsi, -siˌaɪ, -siˌeɪ, -siˌiː/) comes to <a href="/facts/International_scientific_vocabulary/y6VJSmaJ">international scientific vocabulary</a> from <a href="/facts/Neo-Latin/mbBrTVEd">Neo-Latin</a>, from <a href="/facts/Aster_(genus)/JfcaSkCN">Aster</a>, the <a href="/facts/Type_genus/vKbAuKph">type genus</a>, + -aceae,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> a standardized <a href="/facts/Suffix/Nlnft3NK">suffix</a> for plant family names in modern taxonomy. This genus name comes from the <a href="/facts/Classical_Latin/xFLyGtxs">Classical Latin</a> word aster, "star", which came from <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek/LIK7NlUh">Ancient Greek</a> ἀστήρ (astḗr), "star".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> It refers to the star-like form of the inflorescence.
The vernacular name daisy, widely applied to members of this family, is derived from the <a href="/facts/Old_English/9rsmQG2a">Old English</a> name of the daisy (<a href="/facts/Bellis_perennis/moloflfJ">Bellis perennis</a>): dæġes ēaġe, meaning "day's eye". This is because the petals open at dawn and close at dusk.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>

<h2 id="distribution-and-habitat">Distribution and habitat</h2>
Asteraceae species have a widespread distribution, from subpolar to tropical regions in a wide variety of habitats. Most occur in hot desert and cold or hot semi-desert climates, and they are found on every continent but Antarctica. They are especially numerous in tropical and subtropical regions (notably Central America, eastern Brazil, the Mediterranean, <a href="/facts/The_Levant/uuJLt3Af">the Levant</a>, southern Africa, central Asia, and southwestern China).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> The largest proportion of the species occur in the arid and semi-arid regions of subtropical and lower temperate latitudes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> The Asteraceae family comprises 10% of all flowering plant species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a>

<h2 id="ecology">Ecology</h2>

Asteraceae are especially common in open and dry environments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> Many members of Asteraceae are pollinated by insects, which explains their value in attracting <a href="/facts/Beneficial_insects/zrBeX2nN">beneficial insects</a>, but <a href="/facts/Anemophily/37MXM06c">anemophily</a> is also present (e.g. <a href="/facts/Ragweed/0As3y54C">Ambrosia</a>, <a href="/facts/Artemisia_(genus)/GT11xnyF">Artemisia</a>). There are many <a href="/facts/Apomixis/LVzVnGua">apomictic</a> species in the family.
Seeds are ordinarily dispersed intact with the fruiting body, the cypsela. <a href="/facts/Seed_dispersal/yNofEeyA">Anemochory</a> (wind dispersal) is common, assisted by a hairy pappus. <a href="/facts/Seed_dispersal/yNofEeyA">Epizoochory</a> is another common method, in which the dispersal unit, a single cypsela (e.g. <a href="/facts/Bidens/gWMpAUow">Bidens</a>) or entire capitulum (e.g. <a href="/facts/Arctium/Lz1D2Tzf">Arctium</a>) has hooks, spines or some structure to attach to the fur or plumage (or even clothes, as in the photo) of an animal just to fall off later far from its mother plant.
Some members of Asteraceae are economically important as weeds. Notable in the United States are <a href="/facts/Senecio_jacobaea/l2b230Yt">Senecio jacobaea</a> (ragwort),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> <a href="/facts/Senecio_vulgaris/bPLtJwKx">Senecio vulgaris</a> (groundsel),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> and <a href="/facts/Taraxacum/VlPP0mTn">Taraxacum</a> (dandelion).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> Some are invasive species in particular regions, often having been introduced by human agency. Examples include various <a href="/facts/Tumbleweed/nNgvVawx">tumbleweeds</a>, <a href="/facts/Bidens/gWMpAUow">Bidens</a>, <a href="/facts/Ambrosia_(plant)/0As3y54C">ragweeds</a>, <a href="/facts/Thistle/uqErCyg9">thistles</a>, and <a href="/facts/Taraxacum_officinale/soCEIH0y">dandelion</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> Dandelion was introduced into <a href="/facts/North_America/djNjCQIl">North America</a> by European settlers who used the young leaves as a salad green.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> A number of species are toxic to grazing animals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a>

<h2 id="uses">Uses</h2>

Asteraceae is an economically important family, providing products such as cooking oils, leaf vegetables like lettuce, sunflower seeds, artichokes, sweetening agents, coffee substitutes and herbal teas. Several genera are of <a href="/facts/Horticulture/m8qBLuT3">horticultural</a> importance, including pot marigold (<a href="/facts/Calendula_officinalis/KrvQc2J7">Calendula officinalis</a>), <a href="/facts/Echinacea/oI4ASUYg">Echinacea</a> (coneflowers), various daisies, <a href="/facts/Erigeron/Y8d5uU4c">fleabane</a>, <a href="/facts/Chrysanthemum/gk5Iakft">chrysanthemums</a>, <a href="/facts/Dahlia/j3sph3T5">dahlias</a>, <a href="/facts/Zinnia/sgWS7oEd">zinnias</a>, and <a href="/facts/Helenium/W1jBzwxM">heleniums</a>. Asteraceae are important in herbal medicine, including <a href="/facts/Grindelia/U5nHY5Uo">Grindelia</a>, <a href="/facts/Achillea_millefolium/4oLwWnNl">yarrow</a>, and many others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a>
Commercially important plants in Asteraceae include the food crops <a href="/facts/Lactuca_sativa/o68aNEJX">Lactuca sativa</a> (lettuce), <a href="/facts/Cichorium/rlXtvrsF">Cichorium</a> (chicory), <a href="/facts/Cynara_scolymus/0ufCo3tx">Cynara scolymus</a> (globe artichoke), <a href="/facts/Helianthus_annuus/toKpTXpw">Helianthus annuus</a> (sunflower), <a href="/facts/Smallanthus_sonchifolius/LdhjKWv4">Smallanthus sonchifolius</a> (yacón), <a href="/facts/Carthamus_tinctorius/ntdyFrxu">Carthamus tinctorius</a> (safflower) and <a href="/facts/Helianthus_tuberosus/gD1ceLcd">Helianthus tuberosus</a> (Jerusalem artichoke).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a>
Plants are used as herbs and in herbal teas and other beverages. Chamomile, for example, comes from two different species: the annual <a href="/facts/Matricaria_chamomilla/8kpnBjNg">Matricaria chamomilla</a> (German chamomile) and the perennial <a href="/facts/Chamaemelum_nobile/aq0LYKud">Chamaemelum nobile</a> (Roman chamomile). <a href="/facts/Calendula/SeqUCMoG">Calendula</a> (known as pot marigold) is grown commercially for herbal teas and <a href="/facts/Potpourri/a727BMmC">potpourri</a>. <a href="/facts/Echinacea_purpurea/Pq2m9Ntw">Echinacea</a> is used as a medicinal tea. The wormwood genus <a href="/facts/Artemisia_(genus)/GT11xnyF">Artemisia</a> includes <a href="/facts/Absinthe/EtpvXxtH">absinthe</a> (A. absinthium) and <a href="/facts/Tarragon/hFTwG8y8">tarragon</a> (A. dracunculus). Winter tarragon (<a href="/facts/Tagetes_lucida/pQFoaC8v">Tagetes lucida</a>), is commonly grown and used as a tarragon substitute in climates where tarragon will not survive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a>
Many members of the family are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers, and some are important ornamental crops for the cut flower industry. Some examples are <a href="/facts/Chrysanthemum/gk5Iakft">Chrysanthemum</a>, <a href="/facts/Gerbera/sgAasJJq">Gerbera</a>, <a href="/facts/Calendula/SeqUCMoG">Calendula</a>, <a href="/facts/Dendranthema/gk5Iakft">Dendranthema</a>, <a href="/facts/Argyranthemum/07BcqmNG">Argyranthemum</a>, <a href="/facts/Dahlia/j3sph3T5">Dahlia</a>, <a href="/facts/Tagetes/5aKlHFn6">Tagetes</a>, <a href="/facts/Zinnia/sgWS7oEd">Zinnia</a>, and many others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a>

Many species of this family possess medicinal properties and are used as traditional antiparasitic medicine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a>
Members of the family are also commonly featured in medical and phytochemical journals because the <a href="/facts/Sesquiterpene/rFJG50mL">sesquiterpene</a> <a href="/facts/Lactone/UMgRUFtj">lactone</a> compounds contained within them are an important cause of <a href="/facts/Allergic_contact_dermatitis/cNyAKVe7">allergic contact dermatitis</a>. Allergy to these compounds is the leading cause of allergic contact dermatitis in florists in the US.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> Pollen from ragweed <a href="/facts/Ragweed/0As3y54C">Ambrosia</a> is among the main causes of so-called hay fever in the United States.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a>
Asteraceae are also used for some industrial purposes. French Marigold (<a href="/facts/Tagetes_patula/mmTrbMe8">Tagetes patula</a>) is common in commercial poultry feeds and its oil is extracted for uses in cola and the cigarette industry. The genera <a href="/facts/Chrysanthemum/gk5Iakft">Chrysanthemum</a>, <a href="/facts/Pulicaria/R11apDYC">Pulicaria</a>, <a href="/facts/Tagetes/5aKlHFn6">Tagetes</a>, and <a href="/facts/Tanacetum/Ly3qjQm4">Tanacetum</a> contain species with useful insecticidal properties. <a href="/facts/Parthenium_argentatum/c6RoEL2K">Parthenium argentatum</a> (guayule) is a source of <a href="/facts/Hypoallergenic/JlHuSvaS">hypoallergenic</a> latex.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a>
Several members of the family are copious nectar producers<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> and are useful for evaluating pollinator populations during their bloom. <a href="/facts/Centaurea/3Sc38Jo0">Centaurea</a> (knapweed), Helianthus annuus (domestic sunflower), and some species of <a href="/facts/Solidago/Qd4zF4P3">Solidago</a> (goldenrod) are major "honey plants" for beekeepers. Solidago produces relatively high protein pollen, which helps honey bees over winter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<a href="/facts/List_of_Asteraceae_genera/A8ue9CYr">List of Asteraceae genera</a>

<h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2>

<ul><li>Funk, Vicki A.; Susanna, A.; Stuessy, T.F.; Bayer, R.J., eds. (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oj4lAQAAMAAJ">Systematics, Evolution, and Biogeography of Compositae</a>. Vienna: <a href="/facts/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy/DAxv28RK">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-9501754-3-1. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230115175957/https://books.google.com/books?id=oj4lAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 12 November 2021 – via <a href="/facts/Google_Books/lnGRMWXs">Google Books</a>. (Also available <a href="https://archive.org/details/systematicsevolu0000unse">here</a> at <a href="/facts/Internet_Archive/PHStU8Lo">Internet Archive</a>)</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<ul>
<li>Plants portal</li></ul>
<ul><li> Media related to Asteraceae at Wikimedia Commons</li>
<li> Data related to Asteraceae at Wikispecies</li>
<li><a href="http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/asteralesweb.htm#Asteraceae">Asteraceae</a> at the <a href="http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/apweb/">Angiosperm Phylogeny Website</a></li>
<li><a href="http://compositae.org/">Compositae.org</a> – Compositae Working Group (CWG) and Global Compositae Database (GCD)</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Barkley, T.M.; Brouillet, L.; Strother, J.L. (2006). "Asteraceae". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 19. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 20 March 2022 – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA. <a href="/wiki/Luc_Brouillet" target="_blank">/wiki/Luc_Brouillet</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Judd, W.S.; Campbell, C.S.; Kellogg, E.A.; Stevens, P.F.; Donaghue, M.J. (2007). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach (3rd ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0878934072. <a href="978-0878934072" target="_blank">978-0878934072</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Mandel, Jennifer R.; Dikow, Rebecca B.; Siniscalchi, Carolina M.; Thapa, Ramhari; Watson, Linda E.; Funk, Vicki A. (9 July 2019). "A fully resolved backbone phylogeny reveals numerous dispersals and explosive diversifications throughout the history of Asteraceae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (28). National Academy of Sciences: 14083–14088. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11614083M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1903871116. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 6628808. PMID 31209018. <a href="/wiki/Vicki_Ann_Funk" target="_blank">/wiki/Vicki_Ann_Funk</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Barkley, T.M.; Brouillet, L.; Strother, J.L. (2006). "Asteraceae". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 19. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 20 March 2022 – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA. <a href="/wiki/Luc_Brouillet" target="_blank">/wiki/Luc_Brouillet</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Barkley, T.M.; Brouillet, L.; Strother, J.L. (2006). "Asteraceae". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 19. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 20 March 2022 – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA. <a href="/wiki/Luc_Brouillet" target="_blank">/wiki/Luc_Brouillet</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Kilian, Norbert; Gemeinholzer, Birgit; Lack, Hans Walter. "24. Cichorieae" (PDF). In Funk, V.A.; Susanna, A.; Stuessy, T.E.; Bayer, R.J. (eds.). Systematics, evolution and biogeography of Compositae. Vienna: International Association for Plant Taxonomy. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021. <a href="https://www.bgbm.org/sites/default/files/documents/Cichorieae_Chapter24.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.bgbm.org/sites/default/files/documents/Cichorieae_Chapter24.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Barkley, T.M.; Brouillet, L.; Strother, J.L. (2006). "Asteraceae". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 19. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 20 March 2022 – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA. <a href="/wiki/Luc_Brouillet" target="_blank">/wiki/Luc_Brouillet</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Kilian, Norbert; Gemeinholzer, Birgit; Lack, Hans Walter. "24. Cichorieae" (PDF). In Funk, V.A.; Susanna, A.; Stuessy, T.E.; Bayer, R.J. (eds.). Systematics, evolution and biogeography of Compositae. Vienna: International Association for Plant Taxonomy. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021. <a href="https://www.bgbm.org/sites/default/files/documents/Cichorieae_Chapter24.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.bgbm.org/sites/default/files/documents/Cichorieae_Chapter24.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Elomaa, Paula; Zhao, Yafei; Zhang, Teng (1 July 2018). "Flower heads in Asteraceae—recruitment of conserved developmental regulators to control the flower-like inflorescence architecture". Horticulture Research. 5 (1): 36. Bibcode:2018HorR....5...36E. doi:10.1038/s41438-018-0056-8. ISSN 2052-7276. PMC 6026493. PMID 29977572. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6026493" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6026493</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">"Hecastocleis shockleyi A. Gray". Encyclopedia of Life. Retrieved 2 January 2016. and Funk, Vicki A.; Hind, D.J. Nicholas. "Chapter 16. Hecastocleideae (Hecastocleidoideae)". In V.A. Funk; A. Susanna; T. Stuessy; R. Bayer (eds.). Systematics, Evolution, and Biogeography of Compositae (PDF). Vienna: International Association for Plant Taxonomy. Retrieved 2 January 2016. <a href="http://eol.org/pages/467045/details" target="_blank">http://eol.org/pages/467045/details</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Weitz, F.M. (1989). "A revision of the genus Corymbium (Asteraceae)" (PDF). South African Journal of Botany. 55 (6): 598–629. Bibcode:1989SAJB...55..598W. doi:10.1016/S0254-6299(16)31133-4. <a href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82290441.pdf" target="_blank">https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82290441.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Feinbrun-Dothan, N. (1978). Flora Palaestina. Vol. 3. Jerusalem.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) cited on "Gundelia". cichorieae portal. Retrieved 15 December 2016. <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Funk, Vicki A.; Fragman-Sapir, Ori (2009). "22. Gymnarrheneae (Gymnarrhenoideae)" (PDF). In V.A. Funk; A. Susanna; T. Stuessy; R. Bayer (eds.). Systematics, Evolution, and Biogeography of Compositae. Vienna: International Association for Plant Taxonomy. pp. 327–332. Retrieved 27 December 2016. <a href="https://botany.si.edu/bdg/pdf/funkyarchive/funkypdf/2009_pr_Funk_Fragman-Sapir_Gymnarrheneae.pdf" target="_blank">https://botany.si.edu/bdg/pdf/funkyarchive/funkypdf/2009_pr_Funk_Fragman-Sapir_Gymnarrheneae.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Morhardt, Sia; Morhardt, Emil (2004). California desert flowers: an introductions to families, genera, and species. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. pp. 29–32. ISBN 978-0520240032. <a href="978-0520240032" target="_blank">978-0520240032</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">MacKay, Pam (2013). Mojave Desert Wildflowers: A Field Guide To Wildflowers, Trees, And Shrubs Of The Mojave Desert, Including The Mojave National Preserve, Death Valley National Park, and Joshua Tree National Park (Wildflower Series). Guilford, Connecticut: FalconGuides. p. 35 (figure 5). ISBN 978-0762780334. <a href="978-0762780334" target="_blank">978-0762780334</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Spellenberg, Richard (2001) [1979]. National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers: Western Region (rev ed.). Knopf. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-375-40233-3 – via Internet Archive. <a href="978-0-375-40233-3" target="_blank">978-0-375-40233-3</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Morhardt, Sia; Morhardt, Emil (2004). California desert flowers: an introductions to families, genera, and species. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. pp. 29–32. ISBN 978-0520240032. <a href="978-0520240032" target="_blank">978-0520240032</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Morhardt, Sia; Morhardt, Emil (2004). California desert flowers: an introductions to families, genera, and species. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. pp. 29–32. ISBN 978-0520240032. <a href="978-0520240032" target="_blank">978-0520240032</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Morhardt, Sia; Morhardt, Emil (2004). California desert flowers: an introductions to families, genera, and species. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press. pp. 29–32. ISBN 978-0520240032. <a href="978-0520240032" target="_blank">978-0520240032</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:75">Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America. "Ragweed Allergy". www.aafa.org. Archived from the original on 7 October 2007. Retrieved 10 November 2007. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071007191742/http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=19&cont=267" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20071007191742/http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=19&cont=267</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">Singh, Rajendra; Singh, Garima; Tiwari, Ajeet; Patel, Shveta; Agrawal, Ruhi; Sharma, Akhilesh; Singh, B. (2015). "Diversity of host plants of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) infesting Asteraceae in India". International Journal of Zoological Investigations. 1 (2): 137–167. ISSN 2454-3055. Retrieved 16 February 2021 – via ResearchGate. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308200408" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308200408</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Singh, Rajendra; Singh, Garima; Tiwari, Ajeet; Patel, Shveta; Agrawal, Ruhi; Sharma, Akhilesh; Singh, B. (2015). "Diversity of host plants of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) infesting Asteraceae in India". International Journal of Zoological Investigations. 1 (2): 137–167. ISSN 2454-3055. Retrieved 16 February 2021 – via ResearchGate. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308200408" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308200408</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">"Five Plants to Help Pollinators". www.storey.com. The Xerces Society. 2016. Archived from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2020. Goldenrods are among the most important late-season pollinator plants. <a href="https://www.storey.com/article/five-plants-to-help-pollinators/" target="_blank">https://www.storey.com/article/five-plants-to-help-pollinators/</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Asteraceae open-in-new

Asteraceae