History of learning to read

<h2 id="21st-century">21st century</h2>

Beginning in 2000, several reading research reports were published:

<ul><li>2000 – The <a href="/facts/National_Reading_Panel/95jdU0vb">National Reading Panel</a> (U.S.) that identified five ingredients of effective reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a></li>
<li>2005 – The <a href="/facts/Australia/qLHpbppq">Australian</a> report on Teaching reading that supports the use of <a href="/facts/Systematic_Phonics/88Hh2BH0">systematic phonics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a></li>
<li>2006 – The <a href="/facts/United_Kingdom/kuPAILt2">United Kingdom</a> <a href="/facts/Independent_review_of_the_teaching_of_early_reading_(Rose_Report_2006)/YvgxX82H">Independent review of the teaching of early reading (Rose Report 2006)</a> that supports <a href="/facts/Phonics/88Hh2BH0">systematic synthetic phonics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a></li></ul>
In Australia, the 2005 report, Teaching Reading, recommends teaching reading based on evidence and teaching systematic, explicit phonics within an integrated approach.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> The executive summary says "<a href="/facts/Phonics/88Hh2BH0">systematic phonics</a> instruction is critical if children are to be taught to read well, whether or not they experience reading difficulties".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> As of October 5, 2018<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_learning_to_read&action=edit">[update]</a>, The State Government of Victoria, Australia, publishes a website containing a comprehensive Literacy Teaching Toolkit including effective reading instruction, phonics, and sample phonics lessons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a>
In <a href="/facts/Scotland/VGwbbxB2">Scotland</a> a seven-year study (the Clackmannanshire Report) was published in 2005.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> It compared analytic phonics with synthetic phonics and advantaged students with disadvantaged students. The report found that, using <a href="/facts/Phonics/88Hh2BH0">synthetic phonics</a> children from lower socio-economic backgrounds performed at the same level as children from advantaged backgrounds in primary school (whereas with analytic phonics teaching, they did significantly less well.); and boys performed better than or as well as girls. A five-year follow-up of the study concluded that the beneficial effects were long-lasting, in fact the reading gains increased.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> Subsequently, <a href="/facts/Education_Scotland/1TGGMnGy">Education Scotland</a> concluded that explicit, systematic phonics programs, usually embedded in a rich literacy environment, give an additional four months progress over other programs such as whole language, and are particularly beneficial for young learners (aged 4–7). There is evidence, though less secure, that synthetic phonics programs may be more beneficial than <a href="/facts/Analytic_phonics/sSAAxlIT">analytic phonics</a> programs; however, it is most important to teach <a href="/facts/Phonics/88Hh2BH0">systematically</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>
Until 2006, the English language syllabus of <a href="/facts/Singapore/CQDkhUvD">Singapore</a> advocated "a balance between decoding and meaning-based instruction […] phonics and whole language". However, a review in 2006 advocated for a "systematic" approach. Subsequently, the syllabus in 2010 had no mention of whole language and advocated for a balance between "systematic and explicit instruction" and "a rich language environment". It called for increased instruction in oral language skills together with phonemic awareness and the key decoding elements of synthetic phonics, analytic phonics, and analogy phonics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a>
In 2007 the Department of Education (DE) in <a href="/facts/Northern_Ireland/Jmr0NRyl">Northern Ireland</a> was required by law to teach children foundational skills in <a href="/facts/Phonological_awareness/Ud9BpShl">phonological awareness</a> and the understanding that "words are made up of sounds and syllables and that sounds are represented by letters (phoneme/grapheme awareness)".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> In 2010 the DE required that teachers receive support in using <a href="/facts/Evidence-based_practices/sU7RdtkN">evidence-based practices</a> to teach literacy and numeracy, including a "systematic programme of high-quality phonics" that is explicit, structured, well-paced, interactive, engaging, and applied in a meaningful context.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a>
In 2008, the <a href="/facts/National_Center_for_Family_Literacy/E4UkLYEk">National Center for Family Literacy</a>, with the National Institute for Literacy,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> published a report entitled Developing Early Literacy. It is a synthesis of the scientific research on the development of early literacy skills in children ages zero to five as determined by the National Early Literacy Panel that was convened in 2002. Amongst other things, the report concluded that code-focused interventions on the early literacy and conventional literacy skills of young children yield a moderate to large effect on the predictors of later reading and writing, irrespective of socioeconomic status, ethnicity, or population density.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a>
In 2010 the <a href="/facts/Common_Core_State_Standards_Initiative/KvL3jJ9R">Common Core State Standards Initiative</a> was introduced in the United States. The English Language Arts Standards for Reading: Foundational Skills in Grades 1–5 include recommendations to teach print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics and word recognition, and fluency.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a>
In the United Kingdom, a 2010 government white paper contained plans to train all primary school teachers in phonics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> The 2013 curriculum<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> has "statutory requirements" that, amongst other things, students in years one and two be capable in using <a href="/facts/Phonics/88Hh2BH0">systematic synthetic phonics</a> in regards to word reading, reading comprehension, fluency, and writing. This includes having skills in "sound to graphemes", "decoding", and "blending".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a>

In 2013, the National Commission for <a href="/facts/UNESCO/QSbkRv3o">UNESCO</a> launched the Leading for Literacy project to develop the literacy skills of grades 1 and 2 students. The project facilitates the training of primary school teachers in the use of a synthetic phonics program. From 2013 to 2015, the <a href="/facts/Trinidad_and_Tobago/jTXQP4Fe">Trinidad and Tobago</a> Ministry of Education appointed seven reading specialist to help primary and secondary school teachers improve their literacy instruction. From February 2014 to January 2016, literacy coaches were hired in selected primary schools to assist teachers of kindergarten, grades 1 and 2 with pedagogy and content of early literacy instruction. Primary schools have been provided with literacy resources for instruction, including phonemic awareness, word recognition, vocabulary manipulatives, phonics, and comprehension.
In 2013 the <a href="/facts/State_of_Mississippi/7KwuWxxT">State of Mississippi</a> passed the Literacy-Based Promotion Act.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> The <a href="/facts/Mississippi_Department_of_Education/aNW93RGG">Mississippi Department of Education</a> provided resources for teachers in the areas of phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension and reading strategies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a>
The school curriculum in <a href="/facts/Ireland/35vYxXdP">Ireland</a> focuses on ensuring children are literate in both the <a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English language</a> and the <a href="/facts/Irish_language/Kw97s2l4">Irish language</a>. The 2014 teachers' Professional Development guide<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> covers the seven areas of attitude and motivation, fluency, comprehension, word identification, vocabulary, phonological awareness, phonics, and assessment. It recommends that phonics be taught in a systematic and structured way and is preceded by training in phonological awareness.
In 2014 the <a href="/facts/California/zLW2vdQJ">California</a> Department of Education said children should know how to decode regularly spelled one-syllable words by mid-first grade, and be phonemically aware (especially able to segment and blend phonemes)".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> In grades two and three children receive explicit instruction in advanced phonic-analysis and reading multi-syllabic and more complex words.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a>
In 2015 the <a href="/facts/New_York_State/mnl67G1G">New York State</a> Public School system revised its English Language Arts learning standards, calling for teaching involving "reading or literacy experiences" as well as <a href="/facts/Phonemic_awareness/ewz6S95u">phonemic awareness</a> from prekindergarten to grade 1 and phonics and word recognition for grades 1–4.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> That same year, the <a href="/facts/Ohio/YutCnTlh">Ohio</a> Legislature set minimum standards requiring the use of phonics including guidelines for teaching phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a>
In 2016 the What Works Clearinghouse<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> and the <a href="/facts/Institute_of_Education_Sciences/dyLW19vA">Institute of Education Sciences</a> published an Educator's Practice Guide on Foundational Skills to Support Reading for Understanding in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> It contains four recommendations to support reading: 1) teach students academic language skills, including the use of inferential and narrative language, and vocabulary knowledge, 2) develop awareness of the segments of sounds in speech and how they link to letters (phonemic awareness and phonics), 3) teach students to decode words, analyze word parts, and write and recognize words (phonics and synthetic phonics), and 4) ensure that each student reads connected text every day to support reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a>
In 2016 the <a href="/facts/Colorado_Department_of_Education/TG8vcG8Q">Colorado Department of Education</a> updated their Elementary Teacher Literacy Standards with standards for development in the areas of phonology, phonics and word recognition, fluent automatic reading, vocabulary, text comprehension, handwriting, spelling, and written expression.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> At the same time, the Department of Education in <a href="/facts/Delaware/4n4I3Rhu">Delaware</a> produced a plan to improve education results. It states that "students who aren't reading at grade level aren't able to comprehend up to half of the printed fourth-grade curriculum". Furthermore, it says a gap exists between what is known about how to teach reading and how teachers can teach reading. It goes on to say that teachers' preparation programs must include evidence-based practices, including the five essential components of reading instruction (phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a>
The European Literacy Policy Network (ELINET) 2016<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> reports that <a href="/facts/Hungary/YRedQLtI">Hungarian</a> children in grades one and two receive explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics "as the route to decode words". In grades three and four they continue to apply their knowledge of phonics; however, the emphasis shifts to the more meaning-focused technical aspects of reading and writing (i.e., vocabulary, types of texts, reading strategies, spelling, punctuation, and grammar).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a>
In 2017 the <a href="/facts/Ohio/YutCnTlh">Ohio</a> Department of Education adopted Reading Standards for Foundational Skills K–12 laying out a systematic approach to teaching phonological awareness in kindergarten and grade one, and grade-level phonics and word analysis skills in decoding words (including fluency and comprehension) in grades 1–5.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a>
In 2018 the <a href="/facts/Arkansas_Department_of_Education/qeETJDXM">Arkansas Department of Education</a> published a report about their new initiative known as R.I.S.E., Reading Initiative for Student Excellence, which was the result of The Right to Read Act, passed in 2017.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> The first goal of this initiative is to provide educators with the in-depth knowledge and skills of "the science of reading" and evidence-based instructional strategies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> This included a focus on research-based instruction on phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension; specifically systematic and explicit instruction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a>
As of 2018<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_learning_to_read&action=edit">[update]</a>, the Ministry of Education in New Zealand has online information to help teachers support their students in years 1–3 in relation to sounds, letters, and words. It states that phonics instruction "is not an end in itself" and it is not necessary to teach students "every combination of letters and sounds".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a>
Piper et al 2018 published the results of a study of early literacy and numeracy outcomes in developing countries entitled Identifying the essential ingredients to literacy and numeracy improvement: Teacher professional development and coaching, student textbooks, and structured teachers' guides.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a> It concluded that "Including teachers' guides was by far the most cost-effective intervention".
There has been a strong debate in France on the teaching of phonics ("méthode syllabique") versus whole language ("méthode globale"). After the 1990s, supporters of the latter started defending a so-called "mixed method" (also known as <a href="/facts/Balanced_literacy/HsoFHHsJ">Balanced literacy</a>) in which approaches from both methods are used. Influential researchers in psycho-pedagogy, cognitive sciences, and neurosciences, such as <a href="/facts/Stanislas_Dehaene/1tG9zNpr">Stanislas Dehaene</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a> and Michel Fayol have put their heavy scientific weight on the side of phonics. In 2018 the ministry created a science educational council that openly supported phonics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> In April 2018, the minister issued a set of four guiding documents<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a> for early teaching of reading and mathematics and a booklet<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> detailing phonics recommendations. Some have described his stance as "traditionalist",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> but he openly declared that the so-called mixed approach is no serious choice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a>
In 2019 the <a href="/facts/Minnesota_Department_of_Education/5r6VcbvM">Minnesota Department of Education</a> introduced standards requiring school districts to "develop a local literacy plan to ensure that all students have achieved early reading proficiency by no later than the end of third grade" by a Statute of the <a href="/facts/Minnesota_Legislature/lx89ljbG">Minnesota Legislature</a> requiring elementary teachers to be able to implement comprehensive, <a href="/facts/Evidence-based_education/NdyJ4FYW">scientifically based reading</a> and oral language instruction in the five reading areas of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a>
Also in 2019, 26% of grade 4 students in <a href="/facts/Louisiana/2GvfFcKE">Louisiana</a> were reading at the proficiency level according to the <a href="/facts/National_Assessment_of_Educational_Progress/l3XvPrgb">Nation's Report Card</a>, as compared to the National Average of 34%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a> In March 2019 the <a href="/facts/Louisiana_Department_of_Education/6aQgEEx9">Louisiana Department of Education</a> revised their curriculum for K–12 English Language Arts including requirements for instruction in the alphabetic principle, phonological awareness, phonics and word recognition, fluency and comprehension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a>
And again in 2019, 30% of grade 4 students in <a href="/facts/Texas/B987WHF0">Texas</a> were reading at the proficiency level according to the <a href="/facts/National_Assessment_of_Educational_Progress/l3XvPrgb">Nation's Report Card</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a> In June of that year the Texas Legislature passed a Bill requiring all kindergarten through grade-three teachers and principals to "begin a teacher literacy achievement academy before the 2022–2023 school year".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a> The required content of the academies' training includes the areas of The Science of Teaching Reading, Oral Language, Phonological Awareness, Decoding (i.e. Phonics), Fluency and Comprehension. The goal is to "increase teacher knowledge and implementation of <a href="/facts/Evidence-based_education/NdyJ4FYW">evidence-based practices</a> to positively impact student literacy achievement".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a>
In 2021, the State of Connecticut passed an act concerning the "right to read" that will take effect in 2023. It requires education standards that are <a href="/facts/Evidence-based_education/NdyJ4FYW">evidenced-based</a> and scientifically based and focused on competency in the five areas of reading: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary development, and reading fluency, including oral skills and reading comprehension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> In the same year, the state of North Carolina passed a bill requiring that the teaching of reading be based on the science of reading.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a>
In Canada, on January 27, 2022, the <a href="/facts/Ontario_Human_Rights_Commission/UI5F2nF7">Ontario Human Rights Commission</a> (OHRC) released a report on its public inquiry into the right to read.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a> It followed the unanimous decision of the <a href="/facts/Supreme_Court_of_Canada/RQJKhKzC">Supreme Court of Canada</a>, on November 9, 2012, recognizing that learning to read is not a privilege, but a basic and essential human right.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a>
The OHRC's report deals with all students, not just those with learning disabilities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> The inquiry found that Ontario is not fulfilling its obligations to meet students' right to read. Specifically, foundational word-reading skills are not effectively targeted in Ontario's education system. With science-based approaches to reading instruction, early screening, and intervention, we should see only about 5% of students reading below grade level. However, in 2018–2019, 26% of all Ontario Grade 3 students and 53% of Grade 3 students with special education needs (students who have an Individual Education Plan), were not meeting the provincial EQAO standard. The results improved only slightly for Grade 6 students, where 19% of all students and 47% of students with special education needs did not meet the provincial standard.
The Ontario curriculum encourages the use of the three-cueing system and <a href="/facts/Balanced_literacy/HsoFHHsJ">balanced literacy</a>, which are ineffective because they teach children to "guess" the meaning of a word rather than sound it out. What is required is a) <a href="/facts/Evidence-based_education/NdyJ4FYW">evidence-based curriculum and instruction</a> (including explicit and systematic instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics), b) evidence-based screening assessments, c) evidence-based reading interventions, d) accommodations that are not used as a substitute for teaching students to read, and e) professional assessments (yet, not required for interventions or accommodations).
<a href="/facts/Ministry_of_Education_(Ontario)/4m5JbYb3">The Minister of Education for Ontario</a> responded to this report by saying the government is taking immediate action to improve student literacy and making longer-term reforms to modernize the way reading is taught and assessed in schools, with a focus on phonics. Their plan includes "revising the elementary Language curriculum and the Grade 9 English course with scientific, evidence-based approaches that emphasize direct, explicit and <a href="/facts/Phonics/88Hh2BH0">systematic instruction</a>, and removing references to unscientific discovery and inquiry-based learning, including the three-cueing system, by 2023."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a>
On April 23, 2022, the Center for Research in Education and Social Policy at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Delaware/qhyh9tc3">University of Delaware</a> presented the results of a study of the long-term effects of <a href="/facts/Reading_Recovery/kzK4FPg7">Reading Recovery</a>. The conclusion was that the "long-term impact estimates were significant and negative". The study found that children who received Reading Recovery had scores on state reading tests in third and fourth grade that were below the test scores of similar children who did not receive Reading Recovery. It suggests three possible hypotheses for this outcome: 1) while Reading Recovery produces large impacts on early literacy measures, it does not give students the required skills for success in later grades; or, 2) the gains are lost because students do not receive sufficient intervention in later grades; or, 3) the impacts of the early intervention was washed out by subsequent experiences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a>
Between 2013 and 2024, 40 States have passed laws or implemented new policies related to evidence-based reading instruction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Evidence-based_education/NdyJ4FYW">Evidence-based education</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Phonics/88Hh2BH0">Phonics</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Phonics/88Hh2BH0">Phonics practices by country or region</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Reading/HUEBU26z">Reading</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"British Library". www.bl.uk. Archived from the original on 2022-03-11. Retrieved 2021-02-10. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220311085214/https://www.bl.uk/history-of-writing/articles/where-did-writing-begin" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20220311085214/https://www.bl.uk/history-of-writing/articles/where-did-writing-begin</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Hart, John (1570). A method or comfortable beginning for all unlearned, whereby they may be taught to read English in a very short time, with pleasure: so profitable as strange, put in light, by I.H. Chester Heralt. <a href="https://lib.ugent.be/en/catalog/rug01:001517217" target="_blank">https://lib.ugent.be/en/catalog/rug01:001517217</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Adams, Marilyn Jager (1990). Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 21–25. ISBN 0-262-01112-3. OCLC 256731826. <a href="0-262-01112-3" target="_blank">0-262-01112-3</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Glavin, Chris (2014-02-06). "History of Reading Education in the U.S. | K12 Academics". www.k12academics.com. Retrieved 2018-06-15. <a href="https://www.k12academics.com/reading-education-united-states/history-reading-education-us" target="_blank">https://www.k12academics.com/reading-education-united-states/history-reading-education-us</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">William McGuffey (1999). McGuffey's Eclectic Primer. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-29428-4. <a href="0-471-29428-4" target="_blank">0-471-29428-4</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins (1835). The Mother's Primer to Teacher Her Child Its Letters, and How to Read (PDF). Hartford, Connecticut: Daniel Burgess & Co. <a href="http://donpotter.net/pdf/mothers_primer.pdf" target="_blank">http://donpotter.net/pdf/mothers_primer.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins (1830). The child's picture defining and reading book. Hartford, Connecticut: H. & F.J. Huntington. <a href="https://curiosity.lib.harvard.edu/reading/catalog/42-990033002630203941" target="_blank">https://curiosity.lib.harvard.edu/reading/catalog/42-990033002630203941</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">"Sight Words Teaching Strategy | Sight Words: Teach Your Child to Read". www.sightwords.com. 12 November 2013. Retrieved 2018-06-15. <a href="http://www.sightwords.com/sight-words/lessons/" target="_blank">http://www.sightwords.com/sight-words/lessons/</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">"Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet American Sign Language (ASL)". www.lifeprint.com. Retrieved 2018-06-15. <a href="http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/gallaudet-thomas-hopkins3.htm" target="_blank">http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/gallaudet-thomas-hopkins3.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

History of learning to read open-in-new

History of learning to read