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Taranis
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<h2 id="name">Name</h2> <h3>Etymology and development</h3> <p>Taranis's name derives from <a href="/facts/Proto-Celtic/RLla8fIB">proto-Celtic</a> *<i>torano-</i> ("thunder"), which in turn derives from the <a href="/facts/Proto-Indo-European_root/L3p63vYW">proto-Indo-European root</a> *<i>(s)tenh₂-</i> ("to thunder"). Through the proto-Celtic etymon, the theonym is cognate with words for thunder in <a href="/facts/Old_Irish/79xpaDv5">Old Irish</a> (<i>torann</i>), <a href="/facts/Old_Breton/e0Rpgyvf">Old Breton</a> (<i>taran</i>), <a href="/facts/Middle_Welsh/l7rvzqc1">Middle Welsh</a> (<i>taran</i>), and (as a loan word into a non-Celtic language) the <a href="/facts/Gascon_dialect/1MQsKjnG">Gascon dialect</a> of French (<i>taram</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a>: 384 </p><p>During the development of Celtic, the word for thunder seem to have undergone a <a href="/facts/Metathesis_(linguistics)/qPNPuQW1">metathesis</a> (transposition of syllables) from *<i>tonaro-</i> to *<i>torano-</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a>: 384 The question of whether the <a href="/facts/Chester/Ed9BmDyY">Chester</a> altar (discussed below) should be read as attesting to an unmetathesised form of the god's name, Tanaris, was for a long time controversial. However, the discovery of a dedication to <i>Iovi Tanaro</i> ("Jupiter Tanaris") in <a href="/facts/Dalmatia/nstFC7cc">Dalmatia</a> confirms that such a form did exist.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p> <h3>Thunder god</h3> <p>The association with thunder, suggested by the etymology of Taranis's name, is confirmed by his equation with Jupiter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a>: 33 Taranis's name corresponds etymologically to that of the Germanic god <a href="/facts/Donar/Ww3MSrq6">Donar</a> (i.e., Thor).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a>: 33 Peter Jackson has conjectured that the theonyms Taranis and Donar (as well as perhaps the epithet <a href="/facts/Jupiter_Tonans/w2o9wChm">Tonans</a> of Jupiter) originated as a result of the "fossilization of an original epithet or <a href="/facts/Epiklesis/vSD8LXUK">epiklesis</a>" of the <a href="/facts/Proto-Indo-European_mythology/je34oLVn">proto-Indo-European</a> thunder god <a href="/facts/*Perk%25CA%25B7%25C5%25ABnos/agtjFE5E">*Perkʷūnos</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a>: 77 <a href="/facts/Calvert_Watkins/kKg8LMth">Calvert Watkins</a> compared Taranis's name with the name of the <a href="/facts/Hittites/jqG8LbLK">Hittite</a> weather god <a href="/facts/Tar%25E1%25B8%25ABunna/NAXtYX6z">Tarḫunna</a>. However, <a href="/facts/John_T._Koch/41MCFlc3">John T. Koch</a> pointed out that an etymology linking the two theonyms would reverse the order of the metathesis (so that Taranis precedes Tanaris) and therefore compromise the proto-Indo-European etymology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a>: 143 </p> <h2 id="lucan-and-the-scholia">Lucan and the scholia</h2> <h3>Lucan</h3> <p>Lucan's <i>Pharsalia</i> or <i>De Bello Civili</i> (<i>On the Civil War</i>) is an epic poem, begun about 61 CE, on the events of <a href="/facts/Caesar%2527s_civil_war/ha7W5Tsp">Caesar's civil war</a> (49–48 BCE). The passage relevant to Taranis occurs in "Gallic excursus", an <a href="/facts/Epic_catalogue/ghA2cuXT">epic catalogue</a> detailing the rejoicing of the various Gaulish peoples after Caesar removed his legions from Gaul (where they were intended to control the natives) to Italy. The passage thus brings out two themes of Lucan's work, the barbarity of the Gauls and the unpatriotism of <a href="/facts/Caesar/ptR603Gv">Caesar</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a>: 296 </p> <table><tbody><tr><td><p>Tu quoque laetatus converti proelia, Trevir,Et nunc tonse Ligur, quondam per colla decoreCrinibus effusis toti praelate Comatae; Et quibus inmitis placatur sanguine diroTeutates horrensque feris altaribus EsusEt Taranis Scythicae non mitior ara Dianae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></p></td><td><p>Transferral of the warfare pleased you too, <a href="/facts/Treviri/RgqRdjlK">Treviri</a>,and you, <a href="/facts/Ligures/FnhIscGK">Ligures</a>, now shorn of hair but once in all of Long-HairedGaul unrivalled for your tresses flowing gracefully over your necks;and the people who with grim blood-offering placateTeutates the merciless and Esus dread with savage altarsand the slab of Taranis, no kinder than Diana of the Scythians.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></p></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The substance of the last few lines is this: unspecified Gauls, who made human sacrifices to their gods Teutates, Esus, and Taranis, were overjoyed by the exit of Caesar's troops from their territory.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a>: 298–299 The reference to "Diana of the Scythians" refers to the human sacrifices demanded by <a href="/facts/Diana_Nemorensis/KMURBYwq">Diana at her temple in Scythian Taurica</a>, well known in antiquity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a>: 66–67 That Lucan says little about these gods is not surprising. Lucan's aims were poetic, and not historical or ethnographic. The poet never travelled to Gaul and relied on secondary sources for his knowledge of Gaulish religion. When he neglects to add more, this may well reflect the limits of his knowledge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a>: 296 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a>: 40 </p><p>We have no literary sources prior to Lucan which mention these deities, and the few which mention them after Lucan (in the case of Taranis, <a href="/facts/Papias_(lexicographer)/aK3dafev">Papias</a> alone<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a>) rely on this passage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a>: 299 The secondary sources on Celtic religion which Lucan relied on in this passage (perhaps <a href="/facts/Posidonius/wQVXpLHq">Posidonius</a>) have not come down to us.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a>: 297 This passage is one of the very few in classical literature in which Celtic gods are mentioned under their native names,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> rather than <a href="/facts/Interpretatio_graeca/ThCNCCEg">identified with Greek or Roman gods</a>. This departure from classical practice likely had poetic intent: emphasising the barbarity and exoticness the Gauls, whom Caesar had left to their own devices.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a>: 298 </p><p>Some scholars, such as de Vries, have argued that the three gods mentioned together here (Esus, Teutates, and Taranis) formed a divine triad in ancient Gaulish religion. However, there is little other evidence associating these gods with each other. Other scholars, such as <a href="/facts/Graham_Webster_(archaeologist)/6arQtfh4">Graham Webster</a>, emphasise that Lucan may as well have chosen these deity-names for their <a href="/facts/Scansion/AHHzNUf4">scansion</a> and harsh sound.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a>: 299 </p> <h3>Scholia</h3> <p>Lucan's <i>Pharsalia</i> was a very popular school text in late antiquity and the medieval period. This created a demand for commentaries and <a href="/facts/Scholia/BRmywf2t">scholia</a> dealing with difficulties in the work, both in grammar and subject matter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a>: 312 The earliest Lucan scholia that have come down to us are the <a href="/facts/Commenta_Bernensia_and_Adnotationes_Super_Lucanum/LSsrNcEg"><i>Commenta Bernensia</i> and <i>Adnotationes Super Lucanum</i></a>, both from manuscripts datable between the 9th and 11th centuries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a>: 453 Also important are comments from a <a href="/facts/Cologne/U2qmyGga">Cologne</a> codex (the <i>Glossen ad Lucan</i>), dating to the 11th and 12th centuries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a>: 312 In spite of their late date, these scholia are thought to incorporate very ancient material, some of it now lost. The <i>Commenta</i> and <i>Adnotationes</i> are known to contain material at least as old as <a href="/facts/Servius_the_Grammarian/ATQNCfQq">Servius the Grammarian</a> (4th century CE).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a>: 453–454 Below are excerpts from these scholia relevant to Taranis: </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Commentary</th><th>Latin</th><th>English</th></tr><tr><td><i>Commenta Bernensia ad Lucan</i>, 1.445</td><td><i>Taranis Ditis pater hoc modo aput eos placatur: in alveo ligneo aliquod homines cremantur.</i></td><td>Taranis Dispater is appeased in this way by them: several people are burned in a wooden tub.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Commenta Bernensia ad Lucan</i>, 1.445</td><td><i>item aliter exinde in aliis invenimus. [...] praesidem bellorum et caelestium deorum maximum Taranin Iovem adsuetum olim humanis placari capitibus, nunc vero gaudere pecorum.</i></td><td>We also find it [depicted] differently by other [authors]. [...] the leader of wars and chief of the heavenly gods, Taranis, [they consider] to be Jupiter, who was once accustomed to be appeased with human heads, but now [is accustomed] to delight in those of animals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Adnotationes super Lucanum</i>, 1.445.</td><td><i>Taranis Iuppiter dictus a Gallis, qui sanguine litatur humano.</i></td><td>Taranis is called Jupiter by the Gauls, to whom sacrifices are made with human blood.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Glossen ad Lucan</i>, 1.445</td><td><i>Tharanis Iuppiter. hi omnes in Teutonicis partibus colebantur a Taranu. ut feria teutonice dicitur.</i></td><td>Tharanis Jupiter. All of these were worshipped in the <a href="/facts/Teutons/w1UFXDcI">Teutonic</a> regions at Taranus (?), as a day of the week is called in <a href="/facts/Germanic_languages/BxAJX3Kf">Teutonic</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The first excerpt, about the sacrifice to Taranis, comes from a passage in the <i>Commenta</i> which details the human sacrifices offered each of to the three gods (persons were suspended from trees and dismembered for Esus, persons were drowned in a barrel for Teutates). This passage, which is not paralleled anywhere else in classical literature, has been much the subject of much commentary. It seems to have been preserved in the <i>Commenta</i> by virtue of its author's preference for factual (over grammatical) explanation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a>: 318 The <i>Adnotationes</i>, by comparison, tell us nothing about the sacrifices to Esus, Teutates, and Taranis beyond that they were each murderous.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a>: 332 </p> <p>The <i>Commenta</i> tells us that as sacrifices to Taranis, several people were burned in a wooden <i>alveus</i>. The Latin word <i>alveus</i> is translated above as "tub", but it could applied to any hollow container. In various settings, the term could be used to mean a ship's hull, a bath tub, a <a href="/facts/Drainage_basin/lzsx0XJS">drainage basin</a>, a canoe, or a beehive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a>: 324 <a href="/facts/Miranda_Aldhouse-Green/jdYgfNfm">Miranda Green</a> linked this sacrifice with the <a href="/facts/Wicker_man/tgRLauuH">wicker man</a>, the well-known wooden figure in which (according to <a href="/facts/Caesar/ptR603Gv">Caesar</a> and <a href="/facts/Strabo/dzQ59zwn">Strabo</a>) humans were burned as sacrifices.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a>: 100 </p><p>The <i>interpretatio romana</i> of Taranis as Jupiter, given by all three commentaries, is otherwise attested in epigraphy, and agrees with our understanding of Taranis as a thunder god. By contrast, the <i>interpretatio</i> of Taranis as Dis Pater, which only the <i>Commenta</i> gives,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> is quite obscure. It is not given in any inscription, and we do not know what Taranis had to do with the underworld.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a>: 324 Manfred Hainzmann points out that Dis was associated in Latin literature with the night sky and night thunderstorms. <a href="/facts/Statius/j9oKLrxF">Statius</a>, for example, refers to Dis Pater as the "thunderer of the underworld" (<i>Thebaid</i>, 11.209).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a>: 24 </p><p>In the course of giving the <i>interpretatio</i> of Taranis as Jupiter, the scholiast of the <i>Commenta</i> mentions that Taranis was "leader of wars". This is an unusual trait to associate with Jupiter rather than <a href="/facts/Mars_(god)/WVcruI6z">Mars</a> (Roman god of war), though the Romans occasionally gave Jupiter martial functions. Hofeneder has associated the comment that Taranis was "appeased with human heads" with this martial function, as the (pre-Roman) Celtic custom of carrying off their foes' heads in battle is well-attested.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a>: 324–325 The scholiast describes a transition from human to animal sacrifice, probably connected to the suppression of human sacrifice in Gaul in the Imperial period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a>: 5 </p><p>Caesar states in his <i><a href="/facts/Commentaries_on_the_Gallic_War/FQaJPwF9">Commentaries on the Gallic War</a></i> that the Gauls regarded <a href="/facts/Gaulish_Dis_Pater/3g9N6xpN">a Gaulish god</a> (whom Caesar equated with Dis Pater) as their ancestor.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a>: 24 As Taranis is the only Celtic god equated with Dis Pater in ancient literary sources, Taranis has often been a cited as a candidate for <a href="/facts/Gaulish_Dis_Pater/3g9N6xpN">Gaulish Dis Pater</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a>: 201 On the other hand, Caesar also briefly refers to an unnamed Gaulish god who "rules over all the gods" (<i>imperium caelestium tenere</i>), and whom he equates with Jupiter. It has been suggested that Taranis is behind this description.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a>: 208 The similarity between Caesar's description of Gaulish Jupiter, and the <i>Commenta</i>'s description of Taranis as "chief of the heavenly gods" (<i>caelestium deorum maximum</i>), has been noted, though this may reflect reliance on Caesar's text or a routine characterisation of the Roman god Jupiter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a>: 25 </p> <h2 id="taranis-and-the-wheel-god">Taranis and the wheel god</h2> <p>The wheel god (<i>Radgott</i>) is a figure of Celtic religious iconography, a god wielding a spoked wheel. The wheel god is often depicted with the attributes of <a href="/facts/Jupiter/95m7XjMT">Jupiter</a>: thunderbolt, sceptre, and eagle. The spoked wheel was an important religious motif for the Celts. Metal votive wheels (known as <i>rouelles [fr]</i>) are known from Iron Age Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a>: 68, 73 The <i><a href="/facts/Lexicon_Iconographicum_Mythologiae_Classicae/5aUJrc9Y">Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae</a></i> lists 15 depictions of the wheel god. Some are statuettes of the god dressed in Gaulish garb, with a wheel in one hand and a thunderbolt in the other. A mosaic from <a href="/facts/Saint-Romain-en-Gal/1P74WBxe">Saint-Romain-en-Gal</a> shows a woman and a man leaving sacrifices to such a statuette. An obscure scene on the <a href="/facts/Gundestrup_cauldron/M7H3J2ul">Gundestrup cauldron</a> perhaps shows a leaping devotee offering a wheel to the wheel god. The so-called <a href="/facts/Jupiter_column/EcjIzNFz">Jupiter columns</a>, religious monuments widespread in <a href="/facts/Germania/ILqfavJM">Germania</a>, are frequently crowned with an equestrian god, who sometimes wields a wheel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a>: 844 </p><p>Because both were identified with Jupiter, Taranis has been repeatedly equated with the wheel god (for example, by <a href="/facts/Pierre_Lambrechts/IFzuG39r">Pierre Lambrechts</a>, Jean-Jacques Hatt [fr], and <a href="/facts/Anne_Ross_(scholar)/djzFhtRd">Anne Ross</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a>: 41 However, nothing connects the gods directly. No inscription links Taranis with wheel iconography.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a>: 81 Some scholars have rejected this equation. Green rejects it, and argues that the wheel god was a solar deity; naturally identifiable with Jupiter, but distinct from the thunder god Taranis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a>: 41 Gerhard Bauchhenß [de] and Peter Noelke [de] both express scepticism in their studies of Jupiter columns in Germany.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a>: 81, 399 Árpád M. Nagy described the equation as "probable, but not binding".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a>: 844 </p><p>In any case, the combination of the thunderbolt and wheel as attributes is not unique to one deity: <a href="/facts/Hercules/a0GTSxvm">Hercules</a> is occasionally depicted with these attributes in the Latin West, and a female deity with a thunderbolt and wheel is known from a statue in <a href="/facts/Autun/kClrjAX6">Autun</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a>: 845 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a>: 60 </p> <h2 id="epigraphy">Epigraphy</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th>Text</th><th>Context</th><th>Date</th><th>Language</th><th>Citation</th><th>Comments</th></tr><tr><td>ṣ a[ / kakaka[(?) / θarani[? / saφ̣ạṇa / θ̣]arani[?}</td><td>Inscribed on an object (perhaps a keyhandle) made from staghorn. Found in Sottopedonda, in the <a href="/facts/Fiemme_Valley/7fl45HVJ">Fiemme Valley</a>, Italy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a>: 325 </td><td>4th to 3rd century BCE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a>: 325 </td><td><a href="/facts/Raetic/7D2kVtya">Raetic</a></td><td><i>TIR</i> <a href="https://tir.univie.ac.at/wiki/FI-1">FI-1</a></td><td>The god Taranis (in the form Tarani) is invoked twice in this obscure (perhaps magico-religious) Raetic inscription. Simona Marchesini has argued that the absence of the Celtic final -s suggests "the god's name was well integrated in the <a href="/facts/Rhaetian_people/rtFzGUTn">Raetic world</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a>: 177 </td></tr><tr><td>ΟΥΗΒΡΟΥΜΑΡΟΣ / ΔΕΔΕ ΤΑΡΑΝΟΟΥ / ΒΡΑΤΟΥΔΕΚΑΝΤΕΜ (translit. <i>ouibroumaros / dede taranoou / bratoudekantem</i>)</td><td>Inscribed on a small <a href="/facts/Cippus/9VyyS0Wd">cippus</a>. Found in <a href="/facts/Orgon/ptEswLVX">Orgon</a>, <a href="/facts/Bouches-du-Rh%25C3%25B4ne/B9uqcA1s">Bouches-du-Rhône</a>, France.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a></td><td>2nd to 1st century BCE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Gaulish/CAQo48pc">Gaulish</a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Recueil_des_inscriptions_gauloises/CAQo48pc">RIG</a></i> I <a href="https://riig.huma-num.fr/documents/BDR-09-01">G-27</a></td><td>Lejeune offers the translation "Vebrumaros offered Taranus in gratitude (?) the tithe (?)".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>IOVI TAN(ARO) / ]S APER[</i></td><td>Inscribed on an altar. Found in <a href="/facts/Bribir%2c_%25C5%25A0ibenik-Knin_County/y9YCFTch">Bribir</a>, <a href="/facts/Dalmatia/nstFC7cc">Dalmatia</a>, Croatia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a></td><td>First half of the 1st century CE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a></td><td>Latin</td><td><i><a href="/facts/L%2527Ann%25C3%25A9e_%25C3%25A9pigraphique/hT0kUQXP">AE</a></i> <a href="https://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_url.php?s_sprache=en&p_publication=AE+2010%2C+01227&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">2010, 1225</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>TARANUOS</i></td><td>Inscribed on a terracotta jug. Found near <a href="/facts/Amiens/MluWTCmt">Amiens</a>, <a href="/facts/Somme_(department)/1xNDvLgz">Somme</a>, France.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a></td><td>1st century CE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a>: 21 </td><td>Latin</td><td><a href="/facts/L%2527Ann%25C3%25A9e_%25C3%25A9pigraphique/hT0kUQXP">AE</a> <a href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=AE+1966%2C+00269&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">1966, 269</a></td><td>Another inscription found nearby (<a href="/facts/L%2527Ann%25C3%25A9e_%25C3%25A9pigraphique/hT0kUQXP">AE</a> <a href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=AE+1966%2C+00268&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">1966, 268</a>) suggests the find-spot was originally a place of religious significance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a>: 24 </td></tr><tr><td><i>PATE]RNIANUS(?) / V(IVUS) / [ALUM]NO(?) SUO / [PI]O(?) POSUIT / [3]EMIO // ]O[3] / [3]M SA[3] / UXO[RI] / TARANU[TIUS(?)] / COMATUL[LUS(?)</i></td><td>Found in Caesarodunum (Roman <a href="/facts/Tours/NEE7BIFJ">Tours</a>), <a href="/facts/Indre-et-Loire/Vp54lJ5Q">Indre-et-Loire</a>, France<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a></td><td>1st century CE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a>: 27 </td><td>Latin</td><td><a href="/facts/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum/mgo1VJXU">CIL</a> <a href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=CIL+13%2C+03083&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">XIII, 3083</a></td><td><i>Taranu[</i> is a personal name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a>: 26 </td></tr><tr><td><i>IOVI TA/RANUCO / ARRIA SUC/CESSA V(OTUM) S(OLVIT)</i></td><td>Found in Scardona (Roman <a href="/facts/Skradin/uIapXHAW">Skradin</a>), <a href="/facts/Dalmatia/nstFC7cc">Dalmatia</a>, Croatia<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a></td><td>1st to first half of the 2nd century CE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a></td><td>Latin</td><td><a href="/facts/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum/mgo1VJXU">CIL</a> <a href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=CIL+03%2C+02804&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">III, 2804</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>E[ ]IMO / ESOET IVTRABAVTIO / RVTI DVO ESANA / TARAIN[I] PANOV / DIR FONT MEM / MIDR.MARMAR / EVI IABO . VIII . MV / MVLCOI CARBRVX</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a></td><td>Inscribed on a gold <a href="/facts/Lamella_(materials)/GtQ7hVIA">lamella</a>. Found in Baudecet, <a href="/facts/Gembloux/GJ6yH8KQ">Gembloux</a>, <a href="/facts/Belgium/YKuMXP5j">Belgium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a></td><td>2nd century CE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a>: 822 </td><td>Latin (perhaps with Gaulish, Greek or Germanic elements)</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Recueil_des_inscriptions_gauloises/CAQo48pc">RIG</a></i> II.2 L-109</td><td>This magico-religious inscription from <a href="/facts/Belgic_Gaul/5coB0w10">Belgic Gaul</a> is difficult to interpret. Several lines appear to be meaningless <a href="/facts/Ephesia_grammata/gBcmnyCc">ephesia grammata</a>. In arguing that the inscription has Gaulish elements, Karl Horst Schmidt [de] and <a href="/facts/Patrizia_de_Bernardo_Stempel/CfAb1z4o">Patrizia de Bernardo</a> proposed that line 4 invokes the god Taranis. However, <a href="/facts/Pierre-Yves_Lambert/sAg28QAr">Pierre-Yves Lambert</a> proposed the tablet is an <a href="/facts/Totenpass/pDgwFNup">Orphic gold tablet</a>, and reads this line as an Orphic formula in Greek.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>NUM(INI) AUG(USTI) / ET I(OVI) O(PTIMO) M(AXIMO) / TARANUEN / D(E) S(UO) P(RO) P(IETATE) P(OSUIT)</i></td><td>Inscribed on an altar. Found in <a href="/facts/Thauron/VllC89Dm">Thauron</a>, <a href="/facts/Creuse/4X2FyB4c">Creuse</a>, France.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a></td><td>2nd century CE?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a>: 27 </td><td>Latin</td><td><a href="/facts/L%2527Ann%25C3%25A9e_%25C3%25A9pigraphique/hT0kUQXP">AE</a> <a href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=AE+1961%2C+00159&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">1961, 159</a></td><td>It is uncertain whether <i>Taranuen</i> is a god name or a personal name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a>: 27 </td></tr><tr><td><i>I(OVI) O(PTIMO) M(AXIMO) TANARO / L(UCIUS) [ELUFRIUS(?)] GALER(IA) / PRAESENS [CL]UNIA / PRI(NCEPS) LEG(IONIS) XX V(ALERIAE) V(ICTRICIS) / COMMODO ET / LATERANO CO(N)S(ULIBUS) V(OTUM) S(OLVIT) L(IBENS) M(ERITO)</i></td><td>Inscribed on an altar. Found in <a href="/facts/Chester/Ed9BmDyY">Chester</a>, England.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a></td><td>154 CE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a></td><td>Latin</td><td><a href="/facts/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum/mgo1VJXU">CIL</a> <a href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=CIL+07%2C+00168&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">VII, 168</a> = <i><a href="/facts/Roman_Inscriptions_of_Britain/RI2M0Gvl">RIB</a></i> <a href="https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/inscriptions/452">452</a></td><td>This votive inscription to Jupiter Tanarus, by one Lucius Elufrius Praesens from <a href="/facts/Clunia/k32sW29j">Clunia</a>, was one of the <a href="/facts/Arundel_marbles/2zF4VYlo">Arundel marbles</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> The inscription is now badly weathered and illegible, but was read and recorded in the 17th century. The unusual form of the god's name here (Tanarus) has led to repeated suggestions of a misspelling on the part of the engraver or misreading in the original autopsy. However, the discovery of a dedication to <i>Iovi Tanaro</i> in Dalmatia has somewhat obviated these concerns.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a>: 326 <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>IN H(ONOREM) D(OMUS) D(IVINAE) DEO / TARANUCNO // ET RAVINI / QUIBUS EX / COLLATA STIPEN[DIA] / IUL(IUS) IUL[3] / C(AIUS?) COPI[US(?)? EX] / IUSS[U POSU(ERUNT?)]</i></td><td>Inscribed on an altar. Found in <a href="/facts/Godramstein/EkHQQjY1">Godramstein</a>, Germany.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a></td><td>Second half of the 2nd century CE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a></td><td>Latin</td><td><a href="/facts/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum/mgo1VJXU">CIL</a> <a href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=CIL+13%2C+06094&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">XIII, 6094</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><i>DEO / TARANUCNO / VERATIUS / PRIMUS / EX IUSSU</i></td><td>Inscribed on an altar. Found in <a href="/facts/B%25C3%25B6ckingen/s9VecLVT">Böckingen</a>, Germany.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a></td><td>Second half of the 2nd century to first half of the 3rd century CE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a></td><td>Latin</td><td><a href="/facts/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum/mgo1VJXU">CIL</a> <a href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=CIL+13%2C+06478&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">XIII, 6478</a>r\</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>[...] <i>VALE(N)S TARANIS</i> [...]</td><td>Inscribed on a tablet. Found in <a href="/facts/Nicopolis_ad_Istrum/pAdwMmdE">Nicopolis ad Istrum</a>, Bulgaria.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a></td><td>227 CE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a></td><td>Latin</td><td><a href="/facts/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum/mgo1VJXU">CIL</a> <a href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=CIL+03%2C+06150&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">III, 6150</a> = <a href="/facts/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum/mgo1VJXU">CIL</a> <a href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=CIL+03%2C+07437&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">III, 7437</a> = <a href="/facts/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum/mgo1VJXU">CIL</a> <a href="http://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel_en.php?p_belegstelle=CIL+03%2C+12346&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">III, 12346</a></td><td><i>Vale(n)s Taranis</i> is a personal name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a>: 26 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A few different forms of the god's name are known from epigraphy. The spelling Taranus, which is much more common than Taranis in epigraphy, is an older form than Taranis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a>: 20 There is the above-discussed un-metathesised form Taranus. There is also Taranuc(n)us ("son/descendant of Taranus"), known from two inscriptions of <a href="/facts/Germania_Superior/NVgDfxh5">Germania Superior</a>, which attaches a patronymic suffix to Taranis's name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a>: 325–326 </p><p>Different scholars have drawn different conclusions about Taranis's importance and the geographical extent of his worship from his epigraphic attestations. Marion Euskirchen calls the epigraphic evidence "scanty and altogether not unambiguous", which "suggests a rather limited significance of the god within a number of tribal federations".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> Hofeneder, on the other hand, states that Taranis is "attested surprisingly often" for a Celtic god, a fact which "clearly indicates that he must have been a deity worshipped in large parts of <i>Keltiké [de]</i> and over a long period of time".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a>: 327 </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Loucetios/uufcQxzE">Loucetios</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sucellus/qyhBgcUD">Sucellus</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cernunnos/rVUclhjX">Cernunnos</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Birkhan, Helmut (1997). <i>Kelten: Versuch einer Gesamtdarstellung ihrer Kultur</i> (2nd ed.). Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 549–551, 585–589.</li> <li>Green, Miranda J. (1984). <i>The wheel as a cult-symbol in the Romano-Celtic world with special reference to Gaul and Britain</i>. Collection Latomus. Vol. 183. Brussels.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li> <li>Gricourt, Daniel; Hollard, Dominique (1990). "Taranis, le dieu celtique à la roue. Remarques préliminaires". <i>Dialogues d'histoire ancienne</i>. 16 (2): 275–320. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fdha.1990.1491">10.3406/dha.1990.1491</a>.</li> <li>Gricourt, Daniel; Hollard, Dominique (1991). "Taranis, <i>caelestiorum deorum maximus</i>". <i>Dialogues d'histoire ancienne</i>. 17 (1): 343–400. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fdha.1991.1919">10.3406/dha.1991.1919</a>.</li> <li>Lambrechts, Pierre (1942). "Taranis, le dieu celtique à la roue". <i>Contributions à l'étude des divinités celtiques</i>. Bruges: De Tempel.</li> <li>Le Roux, Françoise (1958). "Taranis, dieu Celtique du Ciel et de l'Orage. I. Les documents épigraphiques et littéraires. L'étymologie et ses problèmes". <i>Ogam</i>. 10: 30–39.</li> <li>Le Roux, Françoise (1959). "Taranis, dieu Celtique du Ciel et de l'Orage. II. Taranis – Jupiter – Donar. La roue et l'anguipède. Introduction à une étude exhaustive du Jupiter Gaulois". <i>Ogam</i>. 11: 307–324.</li> <li>Linckenheld, Émile (1929). "Études de mythologie celtique en Lorraine". <i>Annuaire de la Société d'Histoire et d'Archéologie de la Lorraine</i>. 38: 127–128.</li> <li>Sevilla Rodríguez, Martín (1981). "Vestigios toponímicos de culto a <i>Taranis/Taranus</i> en el Noroeste Peninsular". <i>Primera reunión gallega de estudios clásicos : (Santiago-Pontevedra, 2-4 Julio 1979): ponencias y comunicaciones</i>. Santiago de Compostela: Publicaciones de la Universidad de Santiago. pp. 101–103.</li> <li>Sterckx, Claude (1988). "Le fils de Taranis: *Taranucnos = Mabon ab Mellt?". <i>Ollodagos</i>. 1 (1): 21–27.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li> Media related to Taranis at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Matasović, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series. Vol. 9. Leiden / Boston: Brill. <a href="https://archive.org/details/matasovic-etymological-dictionary-of-proto-celtic" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/matasovic-etymological-dictionary-of-proto-celtic</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Matasović, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series. Vol. 9. Leiden / Boston: Brill. <a href="https://archive.org/details/matasovic-etymological-dictionary-of-proto-celtic" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/matasovic-etymological-dictionary-of-proto-celtic</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Altar to Jupiter Tanarus, Chester". The Ashmolean Latin Inscriptions Project. 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2025. <a href="https://latininscriptions.ashmus.ox.ac.uk/xml/AN_Chandler_3_1.xml" target="_blank">https://latininscriptions.ashmus.ox.ac.uk/xml/AN_Chandler_3_1.xml</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Meid, Wolfgang (2003). "Keltische Religion im Zeugnis der Sprache". Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie. 53 (1): 20–40. doi:10.1515/ZCPH.2003.20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Meid, Wolfgang (2003). "Keltische Religion im Zeugnis der Sprache". Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie. 53 (1): 20–40. doi:10.1515/ZCPH.2003.20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Jackson, Peter (2002). "Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage". Numen. 49 (1): 61–102. doi:10.1163/15685270252772777. JSTOR 3270472. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Koch, John T. (2020). Celto-Germanic, Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West. University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Lucan, De Bello Civilo, 1.441-446 <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Translation from Braund, Susan H. (1992). Lucan: Civil War. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Green, C. M. C. (January 1994). "Lucan Bellum Civile 1.444-46: A Reconsideration". Classical Philology. 89 (1): 64–69. doi:10.1086/367392. JSTOR 269754. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Green, Miranda J. (1982). "Tanarus, Taranis and the Chester altar". Journal of the Chester Archaeological Society. 65: 37–44. doi:10.5284/1070267. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Papias was a Latin lexicographer of the 11th century. His dictionary has entries for Teutates and Taranis, which do no more than give interpretatios of these pagan deities (the origin of whom Papias did not even know). Papias evidently relies on the commentary tradition to Lucan.[11]: 531–532 <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>For the most part, classical sources describe Celtic gods under Greek or Roman names without further comment. Georg Wissowa emphasises that Lucan "stands almost alone" (steht nahezu allein) apart from this tradition. Epona, the Gallo-Roman horse god, is a notable exception; she appears frequently in classical literature, and never under an interpretatio.[12]: 9–11 Other Celtic gods mentioned under their own name in later literature include Belenus, Ogmios, Grannus, and Andraste.[11]: 24 <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wissowa" target="_blank">/wiki/Georg_Wissowa</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Esposito, Paolo (2011). "Early and Medieval Scholia and Commentaria on Lucan". In Asso, Paolo (ed.). Brill's Companion to Lucan. Leiden / Boston: Brill. pp. 453–463. doi:10.1163/9789004217096_025. ISBN 978-90-04-21709-6. <a href="978-90-04-21709-6" target="_blank">978-90-04-21709-6</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Esposito, Paolo (2011). "Early and Medieval Scholia and Commentaria on Lucan". In Asso, Paolo (ed.). Brill's Companion to Lucan. Leiden / Boston: Brill. pp. 453–463. doi:10.1163/9789004217096_025. ISBN 978-90-04-21709-6. <a href="978-90-04-21709-6" target="_blank">978-90-04-21709-6</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Translation after the German in Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 317. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Translation after the German in Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 317. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Translation after the German in Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 331. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Translation after the German in Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 334. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Green, Miranda (1997). Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. ISBN 978-0-500-27975-5. <a href="978-0-500-27975-5" target="_blank">978-0-500-27975-5</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>The Commenta offers two sets of interpretatios of the three Celtic gods mentioned in Lucan. In the first set, Teutates is Mercury, Esus is Mars, and Taranis is Dis Pater. In the second set, Teutates is Mars, Esus is Mercury, and Taranis is Jupiter.[6]: 317 <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(god)" target="_blank">/wiki/Mercury_(god)</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Among those who identify the Celtic wheel god with Taranis, some attempt has been made to substantiate the identification of Taranis with Dis Pater. Fritz Heichelheim cited the wheel god of Séguret, who has a snake coiled behind it, as evidence of the chthonic associations of Taranis. Pierre Lambrechts took the Jupiter columns as showing Taranis's dominion over both the underworld and overworld.[18]: 80 <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Heichelheim" target="_blank">/wiki/Fritz_Heichelheim</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Demandt, Alexander (2002). "Der Baumkult der Kelten". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 1–18.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2005). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 1. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Green, Miranda J. (1986). "Jupiter, Taranis and the Solar Wheel". In Henig, Martin; King, Anthony (eds.). Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology. pp. 65–75. <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Nagy, Árpád M (1994). "Taranis". Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. Vol. VII. pp. 843–845. <a href="https://archive.org/details/limc_20210516/Lexicon%20Iconographicum%20Mythologiae%20Classicae/LIMC%20VII-1%20Oidipous-Theseus/page/n436" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/limc_20210516/Lexicon%20Iconographicum%20Mythologiae%20Classicae/LIMC%20VII-1%20Oidipous-Theseus/page/n436</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Green, Miranda J. (1982). "Tanarus, Taranis and the Chester altar". Journal of the Chester Archaeological Society. 65: 37–44. doi:10.5284/1070267. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Bauchhenß, Gerhard; Noelke, Peter (1981). Die Iupitersäulen in den germanischen Provinzen. Köln: Rheinland. <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Green, Miranda J. (1982). "Tanarus, Taranis and the Chester altar". Journal of the Chester Archaeological Society. 65: 37–44. doi:10.5284/1070267. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Bauchhenß, Gerhard; Noelke, Peter (1981). Die Iupitersäulen in den germanischen Provinzen. Köln: Rheinland. <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Nagy, Árpád M (1994). "Taranis". Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. Vol. VII. pp. 843–845. <a href="https://archive.org/details/limc_20210516/Lexicon%20Iconographicum%20Mythologiae%20Classicae/LIMC%20VII-1%20Oidipous-Theseus/page/n436" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/limc_20210516/Lexicon%20Iconographicum%20Mythologiae%20Classicae/LIMC%20VII-1%20Oidipous-Theseus/page/n436</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Nagy, Árpád M (1994). "Taranis". Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. Vol. VII. pp. 843–845. <a href="https://archive.org/details/limc_20210516/Lexicon%20Iconographicum%20Mythologiae%20Classicae/LIMC%20VII-1%20Oidipous-Theseus/page/n436" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/limc_20210516/Lexicon%20Iconographicum%20Mythologiae%20Classicae/LIMC%20VII-1%20Oidipous-Theseus/page/n436</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Espérandieu, Émile (1908). Recueil général des bas-reliefs, statues et bustes de la Gaule romaine. Vol. 3. Paris: Imprimerie nationale. <a href="https://archive.org/details/recueilgeneralde21espe" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/recueilgeneralde21espe</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Marchesini, Simona (2012). "La ricezione di elementi culturali allogeni in ambito retico: Taranis in Val di Fiemme (TN)". Mode e modelli. Fortuna e insuccesso nella circolazione di cose e idee. Officina Etruscologia. Vol. 7. Rome. pp. 177–190.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>RIG I G-27 via Recueil informatisé des inscriptions gauloises. Accessed on 16 January 2025. <a href="https://riig.huma-num.fr/documents/BDR-09-01" target="_blank">https://riig.huma-num.fr/documents/BDR-09-01</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>RIG I G-27 via Recueil informatisé des inscriptions gauloises. Accessed on 16 January 2025. <a href="https://riig.huma-num.fr/documents/BDR-09-01" target="_blank">https://riig.huma-num.fr/documents/BDR-09-01</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>RIG I G-27 via Recueil informatisé des inscriptions gauloises. Accessed on 16 January 2025. <a href="https://riig.huma-num.fr/documents/BDR-09-01" target="_blank">https://riig.huma-num.fr/documents/BDR-09-01</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>AE 2010, 1225 <a href="/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_%C3%A9pigraphique" target="_blank">/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_%C3%A9pigraphique</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>AE 2010, 1225 <a href="/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_%C3%A9pigraphique" target="_blank">/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_%C3%A9pigraphique</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>AE 1966, 269 <a href="/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_%C3%A9pigraphique" target="_blank">/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_%C3%A9pigraphique</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>CIL XIII, 3083 <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" target="_blank">/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>CIL III, 2804 <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" target="_blank">/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>CIL III, 2804 <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" target="_blank">/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>This reading follows Jürgen Untermann.[31] Other readings, by Pierre-Yves Lambert and Brigitte Galsterer [de], are given in the apparatus to RIG L-109.[32] <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Untermann" target="_blank">/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Untermann</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>RIG II.2 L-109 in Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2002). Recueil des inscriptions gauloises. II, fasc. 2, Textes gallo-latins sur instrumentum. Paris: Éd. du CNRS. pp. 310-312. <a href="/wiki/Recueil_des_inscriptions_gauloises" target="_blank">/wiki/Recueil_des_inscriptions_gauloises</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Raepsaet-Charlier, Marie-Thérèse (1993). "La plaquette en or inscrite de Baudecet: quelques considérations sur sa fonction et son interprétation". Latomus. 52 (4): 819–825. JSTOR 41536782. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>RIG II.2 L-109 in Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2002). Recueil des inscriptions gauloises. II, fasc. 2, Textes gallo-latins sur instrumentum. Paris: Éd. du CNRS. pp. 310-312. <a href="/wiki/Recueil_des_inscriptions_gauloises" target="_blank">/wiki/Recueil_des_inscriptions_gauloises</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>AE 1961, 159 <a href="/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_%C3%A9pigraphique" target="_blank">/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_%C3%A9pigraphique</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>RIB 452 <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inscriptions_of_Britain" target="_blank">/wiki/Roman_Inscriptions_of_Britain</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>RIB 452 <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inscriptions_of_Britain" target="_blank">/wiki/Roman_Inscriptions_of_Britain</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>RIB 452 <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inscriptions_of_Britain" target="_blank">/wiki/Roman_Inscriptions_of_Britain</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:78"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:79"><p>"Altar to Jupiter Tanarus, Chester". The Ashmolean Latin Inscriptions Project. 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2025. <a href="https://latininscriptions.ashmus.ox.ac.uk/xml/AN_Chandler_3_1.xml" target="_blank">https://latininscriptions.ashmus.ox.ac.uk/xml/AN_Chandler_3_1.xml</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:80"><p>CIL XIII, 6094 <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" target="_blank">/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:81"><p>CIL XIII, 6094 <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" target="_blank">/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>CIL XIII, 6478 <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" target="_blank">/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>CIL XIII, 6478 <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" target="_blank">/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:84"><p>CIL III, 6150 <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" target="_blank">/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:85"><p>CIL III, 6150 <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" target="_blank">/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:86"><p>Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:87"><p>Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:88"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:89"><p>Euskirchen, Marion (2006). "Taranis". Brill's New Pauly Online. Brill. doi:10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1200490. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:90"><p>Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>