Chechen–Russian conflict

<h2 id="origins">Origins</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Russian_imperialism/9fX3DgVq">Russian imperialism</a>
The <a href="/facts/North_Caucasus/GpxBJatP">North Caucasus</a>, a mountainous region that includes <a href="/facts/Chechnya/mjpuy4nm">Chechnya</a>, spans or lies close to important trade and communication routes between <a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a> and the <a href="/facts/Middle_East/8CD6pLWv">Middle East</a>, control of which have been fought over by various powers for millennia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> Russia's entry into the region followed Tsar <a href="/facts/Ivan_the_Terrible/T0kT4xAs">Ivan the Terrible</a>'s conquest of the <a href="/facts/Golden_Horde/Cnee5NcY">Golden Horde</a>'s <a href="/facts/Khanate_of_Kazan/Ac216Jwn">Khanates of Kazan</a> and <a href="/facts/Astrakhan_Khanate/IFadLoIl">Astrakhan</a> in 1556, initiating a long struggle for control of the North Caucasus routes with other contemporary powers including <a href="/facts/Safavid_Iran/WPHAaz8e">Persia</a>, the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a> and the <a href="/facts/Crimean_Khanate/JPtgG0dx">Crimean Khanate</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>
During the 16th century, the <a href="/facts/Tsardom_of_Russia/m0scLsSq">Russian Tsardom</a> tried to win influence in the North Caucasus by allying themselves with local princes such as the <a href="/facts/Temryuk_of_Kabardia/H1KV91mP">Temryuk</a> of <a href="/facts/Kabardia/hblPc22z">Kabardia</a> and Shikh-Murza Okotsky of Chechnya. Temryuk controlled the Northwest Caucasus and with Russia's help he managed to stave off Crimean incursions. Northeast Caucasus was largely controlled by <a href="/facts/Shamkhalate_of_Tarki/lf9HYATY">Shamkhal</a> princes, <a href="/facts/Avar_Khanate/9Y8r1l4V">Avar</a> khans and the powerful lord of Okotsk (a Chechen <a href="/facts/Feudalism/WCK7l9gA">feudal</a> entity) Prince Shikh whose influence reached all of Northeast Caucasus. These princes bought weapons and settled Russian <a href="/facts/Cossacks/gqGJ4JKe">Cossacks</a> near the <a href="/facts/Terek_(river)/UrjhAmuE">Terek river</a> to strengthen their rule and influence. Prince Shikh Okotsky had in his army around 500 Cossacks combined with 1,000 Okocheni (the <a href="/facts/Chechens/xXzyEMjB">Chechens</a> of <a href="/facts/Aukh/qze3fssG">Aukh</a>), and often waged anti-Iranian and anti-Ottoman campaigns in <a href="/facts/Dagestan/luq7F4vT">Dagestan</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a>
Prince Shikh's politics gave the Russian Tsardom more influence in the Northeast Caucasus, several Russian forts were set up along the Terek river (among them the stronghold of <a href="/facts/Tarki/Mqu0WrCr">Terki</a>) and Cossack villages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> Prior to this the Cossacks had almost no presence in Chechnya and Dagestan. These villages and forts caused Chechens to distrust Prince Shikh since forts were built on Chechen owned pastures. The Michkizi (lowland Chechens) and part of the Okoki (a Chechen tribe of Aukh) that were loyal to the Chechen <a href="/facts/Mullah/4gSasztV">Mullah</a> Mayda joined the outcast <a href="/facts/Kumyks/VXxMWQxW">Kumyk</a> prince Sultan-Mut who for a very long time allied with the Chechens living south of the Terek-<a href="/facts/Sulak_(river)/20Ys7mT0">Sulak</a> interfluve. Sultan-Mut was at first against the Russian policies in the <a href="/facts/Caucasus/sE8P8Ejg">Caucasus</a>, he along with the Chechens, Kumyks and Avars fought Russian Cossacks and burned down Russian forts. The Russian Tsar countered this by sending military expeditions into Dagestan. Both of these expeditions resulted in Russian defeat and culminated in the Battle of the Karaman Field where a Dagestani-Chechen army under Sultan-Mut defeated the Russian army. These failed expeditions and battles by Russia led to the weakening of Prince Shikh and his assassination in 1596 by one of Sultan-Mut's brothers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>
Sultan-Mut continued to pursue an anti-Russian policy into the early 17th century and was known to sometimes live among the Chechens and with them raid the Russian Cossacks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> However, this started to change as Sultan-Mut several times tried to join the Russians and asked for a citizenship. This switch of policy angered many Chechens and led to them distancing from Sultan-Mut. This caused a mistrust in Aukh between the people of <a href="/facts/Endirey/cwWDrJIj">Endirey</a> (Chechen-Kumyk city controlled by the Sultan-Mut family and his Chechen Sala-Uzden allies) and the Aukh Chechens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a>
In 1774, Russia gained control of <a href="/facts/Ossetia/kVQnLAA6">Ossetia</a>, and with it the strategically important <a href="/facts/Darial_Pass/4s7UEBFN">Darial Pass</a>, from the Ottomans. A few years later, in 1783, Russia signed the <a href="/facts/Treaty_of_Georgievsk/8tYw0yWx">Treaty of Georgievsk</a> with <a href="/facts/Heraclius_II_of_Georgia/8bwybsq9">Heraclius II</a> of the <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Kartli-Kakheti/hbW2zCav">Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti</a>, making the eastern <a href="/facts/Georgia_(country)/ccBF8bBE">Georgian</a> kingdom—a Christian <a href="/facts/Enclave_and_exclave/AFKB4LW6">enclave</a> surrounded by hostile <a href="/facts/Muslims/W2ukq4pg">Muslim</a> states—a Russian <a href="/facts/Protectorate/TEBGopb9">protectorate</a>. To fulfill her obligations under the treaty, <a href="/facts/Catherine_the_Great/FTVM1heM">Catherine the Great</a>, Empress of Russia, began construction of the <a href="/facts/Georgian_Military_Road/1XcNJmge">Georgian Military Road</a> through the Darial Pass, along with a series of military forts to protect the route.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> These activities, however, antagonized the Chechens, who saw the forts both as an encroachment on the traditional territories of the mountaineers and as a potential threat.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
<h3>Chechen conflict with the Russian Empire</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Russian_conquest_of_the_Caucasus/Vs5xkuIa">Russian conquest of the Caucasus</a>
<h4>Murat Kuchukov's insurgency</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Murat_Kuchukov_Movement/rXeXYuAk">Murat Kuchukov Movement</a>
The first significant conflict between the Chechens (and other <a href="/facts/North_Caucasus/GpxBJatP">North Caucasian</a> peoples) and the Russians broke out in 1708. This conflict was primarily driven by the actions of corrupt governors, local princes, and the imposition of discriminatory policies and taxes on the North Caucasian population. Tensions were further fueled by <a href="/facts/Murat_Kuchukov/Q2sQqyeg">Murat Kuchukov</a>, a <a href="/facts/Bashkirs/Ud9Davf1">Bashkir</a> religious and military leader allied with the Turlov prince, <a href="/facts/Amirkhamza_Turlov/RrhTs8lY">Amirkhamza Turlov</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> As a result of Kuchukov's teachings, Kuchukov rallied over 1,600 fighters from across the North Caucasus, including 700 from the Chechen plain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> Notably, a large portion of Kuchukov's forces were <a href="/facts/Aukhs/rNk3eu0H">Aukhs</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>
In February 1708, these forces launched an assault on the <a href="/facts/Terki_Fortress/THxdgvzg">Terki Fortress</a>. However, the arrival of Russian and Kalmyk reinforcements turned the tide against the rebels. Ultimately, Murat Kuchukov was captured and subsequently executed, marking a decisive defeat for the North Caucasian insurgents.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>

<h4>Sheikh Mansur Movement and aftermath, 1785–1794</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Sheikh_Mansur_Movement/GwbhTyre">Sheikh Mansur Movement</a>
Around this time, <a href="/facts/Sheikh_Mansur/kfKly0nA">Sheikh Mansur</a>, a Chechen <a href="/facts/Imam/BKmjWDg0">imam</a>, began preaching a purified version of <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a> and encouraging the various mountain peoples of the <a href="/facts/North_Caucasus/GpxBJatP">North Caucasus</a> to unite under the banner of Islam in order to protect themselves from further foreign encroachments. His activities were seen by the <a href="/facts/Russians/RBG9H1Rj">Russians</a> as a threat to their own interests in the region, and in 1785, a 3,000 strong was sent to capture him. Failing to do so, it burned his unoccupied home village instead, but the force was ambushed by Mansur's followers on its return journey and annihilated, beginning the first Chechen–Russian war. Mansur grew in popularity and soon several thousand people from across the <a href="/facts/North_Caucasus/GpxBJatP">North Caucasus</a> came to join his army. However, he failed to capture the fortresses of <a href="/facts/Kizlyar/EFlvkX9T">Kizlyar</a> twice<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> and Grigoriopolis, after which many of his supporters left him. During his <a href="/facts/Sheikh_Mansur_Movement/GwbhTyre">Campaign to Kabardia</a> he suffered a crushing <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Tatartup/1KfESnV1">defeat at Tatartup</a>. From there on began the decline of the insurgency, although Mansur continued mobilizing fighters, but in June 1787, he only managed to gather 1,000 men, who also soon left him after showing <a href="/facts/Sheikh_Mansur_Movement/GwbhTyre">indecisivness in his campaigns</a>. He left for <a href="/facts/Circassia/FCjynbWQ">Circassia</a> in July of the same year, where he quickly gained the support of the <a href="/facts/Circassians/fTWD67Tg">Circassians</a>. However, there he also suffered several heavy defeats, most notably during the battle of the Urup River, where he was almost hit by an arrow and barely managed to escape through the mountains. The insurgency was eventually put down after his <a href="/facts/Siege_of_Anapa_(1791)/wS78qFgP">final defeat at Anapa</a> in July 1791, where he was captured. Mansur died in captivity in 1794.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>

<h4>Caucasian and Crimean Wars, 1817–64</h4>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Caucasian_War/sH4pcH1u">Caucasian War</a>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Russian_conquest_of_Chechnya_and_Dagestan/j6wErTLw">Russian conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan</a>

After Russia's <a href="/facts/French_invasion_of_Russia/EK8zjEhY">defeat of French Napoleonic forces</a> in the 1812 war, Tsar <a href="/facts/Alexander_I_of_Russia/rjCk3Rr2">Alexander I</a> turned his attentions once more to the <a href="/facts/North_Caucasus/GpxBJatP">North Caucasus</a>, assigning one of his most celebrated generals, <a href="/facts/Aleksey_Yermolov_(general)/0rk9Y5FU">Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov</a>, to the conquest of the region. In 1817, Russian forces under Yermolov's command embarked upon the <a href="/facts/Russian_conquest_of_the_Caucasus/Vs5xkuIa">conquest of the Caucasus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> Yermolov's brutal tactics, which included economic warfare, collective punishment and forcible deportations, were initially successful, but have been described as counterproductive since they effectively ended Russian influence on Chechen society and culture and ensured the Chechens' enduring enmity. Yermolov was not relieved of command until 1827.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>
A turning point in the conflict was marked in 1828 when the <a href="/facts/Murid/VjnSkl2d">Muridism</a> movement emerged. It was led by <a href="/facts/Imam_Shamil/UKLPrXm9">Imam Shamil</a>, a Dagestani <a href="/facts/Avars_(Caucasus)/bLK2lrys">Avar</a>. In 1834 he united the Northeast Caucasus nations under Islam and declared "holy war" on Russia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> In 1845 Shamil's forces surrounded and killed thousands of Russian soldiers and several generals in <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Dargo_(1845)/NcWJtyfq">Dargo</a>, forcing them to retreat.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>

During the <a href="/facts/Crimean_War/v163wdr8">Crimean War</a> of 1853–1856, the Chechens supported the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a> against Russia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> However, internal tribal conflicts weakened Shamil and he was captured in 1859.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> The war formally ended in 1862 when Russia promised autonomy for Chechnya and other Caucasian ethnic groups.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> However, Chechnya and the surrounding region, including northern <a href="/facts/Dagestan/luq7F4vT">Dagestan</a>, were incorporated into the <a href="/facts/Russian_Empire/hg1g5SpV">Russian Empire</a> as the <a href="/facts/Terek_Oblast/ydfH8j67">Terek Oblast</a>. Some Chechens have perceived Shamil's surrender as a betrayal, thus creating friction between Dagestanis and Chechens in this conflict, with the Dagestanis being frequently accused by Chechens as Russian collaborators.

<h3>Russian Civil War and Soviet period</h3>
After the <a href="/facts/Russian_Revolution/kk1z6pnH">Russian Revolution</a>, the peoples of the <a href="/facts/North_Caucasus/GpxBJatP">North Caucasus</a> came to establish the <a href="/facts/Mountainous_Republic_of_the_Northern_Caucasus/82jpVJo8">Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus</a>. It existed until 1921, when they were forced to accept <a href="/facts/Soviet_Union/m7wWsPto">Soviet</a> rule. <a href="/facts/Joseph_Stalin/SHtxGyQn">Joseph Stalin</a> personally held negotiations with the Caucasian leaders in 1921 and promised a wide autonomy inside the Soviet state. The <a href="/facts/Mountain_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic/8acLYQPn">Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic</a> was created that year, but only lasted until 1924 when it was abolished and six republics were created.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> The <a href="/facts/Chechen%E2%80%93Ingush_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic/PvVkPs2y">Checheno–Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic</a> was established in 1934. Confrontations between the Chechens and the Soviet government arose in the late 1920s during <a href="/facts/Collective_farming/lSyD3fCR">collectivization</a>. It declined by the mid-1930s after local leaders were arrested or killed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> The Chechen uprising of 1932 [ru] broke out in early 1932 and was defeated in March.

<h4>Ethnic cleansing of Chechens from their homeland</h4>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Deportation_of_the_Chechens_and_Ingush/PaDFtVnW">Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush</a> and <a href="/facts/1940%E2%80%9344_insurgency_in_Chechnya/LF8Hw2QC">1940–44 insurgency in Chechnya</a>

<a href="/facts/Nazi_Germany/8kRbqRpo">Nazi Germany</a> invaded the <a href="/facts/Soviet_Union/m7wWsPto">Soviet Union</a> in June 1941. Soviet historiography falsely accuses Chechens of joining the <a href="/facts/Wehrmacht/cVGQH8JW">Wehrmacht</a> en masse, although this notion is not accepted in any other academic instances.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> Modern Russian historiography itself also admits that there is little merit to these accusations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> By January 1943, the German retreat started, while the Soviet government began discussing the deportation of <a href="/facts/Chechens/xXzyEMjB">Chechen</a> and <a href="/facts/Ingush_people/Q74QXk08">Ingush people</a> far from the North Caucasus, this was despite the fact Chechens and Ingush served in the <a href="/facts/Red_Army/n15nLQTu">Red Army</a> like any other of the nations in the Soviet Union. In February 1944, under the direct command of <a href="/facts/Lavrentiy_Beria/LpnSYgsR">Lavrentiy Beria</a>, almost half a million Chechens and Ingush were removed from their homes and forcibly settled in <a href="/facts/Central_Asia/rB8k0CyT">Central Asia</a> in an act of <a href="/facts/Ethnic_cleansing/N8zf9Y0K">ethnic cleansing</a>. They were put in forced labor camps in <a href="/facts/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic/qnq5kj2M">Kazakhstan</a> and <a href="/facts/Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic/CptGDWXN">Kirghizia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> Estimates on casualties range from 170,000<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> up to 200,000,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> with some evidence also indicating that 400,000 people perished.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> The victims perished mostly due to hypothermia (freezing to death) and starvation, although massacres were not uncommon. The most notable of the massacres during the deportation was the <a href="/facts/Khaibakh_massacre/3bDnpLyn">Khaibakh massacre</a>, in which an estimated 700 Chechen children, elderly and women were locked in a barn and burned alive, reportedly due to problems with their transportation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> <a href="/facts/Mikhail_Gvishiani/FkApXeha">Mikhail Gvishiani</a>, the officer responsible for the massacre was praised and promised a medal by <a href="/facts/Lavrentiy_Beria/LpnSYgsR">Lavrentiy Beria</a> himself.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> A 2004 <a href="/facts/European_Parliament/H9WLUd1r">European Parliament</a> resolution states that the deportation was a genocide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>

<h4>Ethnic clashes (1958–65)</h4>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Chechen%E2%80%93Slav_ethnic_clashes_(1958%E2%80%9365)/2m839XTB">Chechen–Slav ethnic clashes (1958–65)</a> and <a href="/facts/1958_Grozny_riots/9wKjS3bb">1958 Grozny riots</a>
In 1957, Chechens were allowed to return to their homes. The <a href="/facts/Checheno-Ingush_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic/PvVkPs2y">Checheno–Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic</a> was reestablished.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> The violence began in 1958, upon a conflict between a <a href="/facts/Russians/RBG9H1Rj">Russian</a> sailor and an <a href="/facts/Ingush_people/Q74QXk08">Ingush</a> youngster over a girl, in which the Russian was fatally injured. The incident quickly deteriorated into mass ethnic riots, as Slavic mobs attacked Chechens and Ingushes and looted their property throughout the region for four days.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> Ethnic clashes continued through the 1960s, and in 1965 some 16 clashes were reported, with 185 severe injuries, 19 of them fatal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> By the late 1960s, the region calmed down and the Chechen–Russian conflict came to its lowest point until the <a href="/facts/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union/Fyn5jw3n">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a> and the eruption of Chechen Wars in 1990.

<h3>Post-Soviet era</h3>
<h4>Chechen Wars</h4>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/First_Chechen_War/R8n3Jjk1">First Chechen War</a> and <a href="/facts/Second_Chechen_War/yYtF25ST">Second Chechen War</a>

In 1991, following the <a href="/facts/Chechen_Revolution/btWJ7BRs">Chechen Revolution</a>, <a href="/facts/Chechnya/mjpuy4nm">Chechnya</a> declared independence as the <a href="/facts/Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria/o3pAkwlg">Chechen Republic of Ichkeria</a>. According to some sources, from 1991 to 1994, tens of thousands of people of non-Chechen ethnicity (mostly <a href="/facts/Russians/RBG9H1Rj">Russians</a>, <a href="/facts/Ukrainians/393lUkjj">Ukrainians</a> and <a href="/facts/Armenians/SxHfJF8N">Armenians</a>) left the republic amidst reports of violence and discrimination against the non-Chechen population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> Other sources do not identify displacement as a significant factor in the events of the period, instead focusing on the deteriorating domestic situation within Chechnya, the aggressive politics of the Chechen President, <a href="/facts/Dzhokhar_Dudayev/lRp5dDQJ">Dzhokhar Dudayev</a>, and the domestic political ambitions of Russian President <a href="/facts/Boris_Yeltsin/I8Ktypjs">Boris Yeltsin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> <a href="/facts/Russian_Army/AUVFgR2L">Russian Army</a> forces were commanded into <a href="/facts/Grozny/L2YTDINV">Grozny</a> in 1994<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> but, after two years of intense fighting, the Russian troops eventually withdrew from Chechnya under the <a href="/facts/Khasavyurt_Accord/XaskYJuL">Khasavyurt Accord</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> Chechnya preserved its de facto independence until the second war broke out in 1999.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>

In 1999, the Russian government forces started an anti-terrorist campaign in Chechnya, in response to the <a href="/facts/War_of_Dagestan/5AQLDoDQ">invasion of Dagestan</a> by Chechen-based <a href="/facts/Islamism/4u3G2nEf">Islamic</a> forces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> By early 2000 Russia almost completely <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Grozny_(1999%E2%80%932000)/NrM6afgu">destroyed the city of Grozny</a> and succeeded in putting Chechnya under direct control of <a href="/facts/Moscow/XUU6VkdY">Moscow</a> by late April.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a>

<h4>Chechen insurgency</h4>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Insurgency_in_the_North_Caucasus/hxKVMI69">Insurgency in the North Caucasus</a> and <a href="/facts/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_the_North_Caucasus/ewQCNDFI">Islamic State insurgency in the North Caucasus</a>
Since the end of the <a href="/facts/Second_Chechen_War/yYtF25ST">Second Chechen War</a> in May 2000, low-level insurgency has continued, particularly in <a href="/facts/Chechnya/mjpuy4nm">Chechnya</a>, <a href="/facts/Ingushetia/pEDo7uYn">Ingushetia</a> and <a href="/facts/Dagestan/luq7F4vT">Dagestan</a>. Russian security forces have succeeded in eliminating some of their leaders, such as <a href="/facts/Shamil_Basayev/FHgh2dCl">Shamil Basayev</a>, who was killed on 10 July 2006.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> After Basayev's death, <a href="/facts/Dokka_Umarov/7IE6t1kx">Dokka Umarov</a> took the leadership of the rebel forces in <a href="/facts/North_Caucasus/GpxBJatP">North Caucasus</a> until his death, owing to poisoning, in 2013.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a>
Islamists from Chechnya and other North Caucasian republics have been blamed for a number of terrorist attacks throughout Russia,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> most notably the <a href="/facts/Russian_apartment_bombings/qMheBnjY">Russian apartment bombings</a> in 1999,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> the <a href="/facts/Moscow_theater_hostage_crisis/QpRzml6X">Moscow theater hostage crisis</a> in 2002,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> the <a href="/facts/Beslan_school_hostage_crisis/h4Vtmcbx">Beslan school hostage crisis</a> in 2004, the <a href="/facts/2010_Moscow_Metro_bombings/Q4zvgkB1">2010 Moscow Metro bombings</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> and the <a href="/facts/Domodedovo_International_Airport_bombing/BTpGrTFp">Domodedovo International Airport bombing</a> in 2011.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a>
Currently, Chechnya is now under the rule of its <a href="/facts/Head_of_the_Chechen_Republic/I8nhHCPU">Russian-appointed leader</a> <a href="/facts/Ramzan_Kadyrov/aTcQAzde">Ramzan Kadyrov</a>. Though the oil-rich region has maintained relative stability under Kadyrov, he has been accused by critics and citizens of suppressing freedom of the press and violating other political and human rights. Because of this continued Russian rule, there were minor guerilla attacks by separatist groups in the area. Further adding to the tension, <a href="/facts/Jihadism/FaY0bQcQ">jihadist</a> groups aligned with the <a href="/facts/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant/agpVzR4K">Islamic State</a> and <a href="/facts/Al-Qaeda/CIQSk3D7">Al-Qaeda</a> existed in the region.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a>
Sociologist <a href="/facts/Georgi_Derluguian/3eEhtGes">Georgi Derluguian</a> described the situation in Chechnya as follows:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a>

And during the second war, after 1999, the Russians adopted a strategy which they thought was very smart – using elements of the Chechen resistance, who previously fought against the Russians but were lured to the Russian side, as death squads. But when you use, basically, pirates and rogues as death squads and you entrust local power to them as the occupational authority, the result is that you destroy whatever is left of regular governance structures.

Although insurgency between the Russian government and the Chechen militants ended in 2017, elimination of militants continued afterwards.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a>

<h3>Outside Russia</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/International_response_to_the_Second_Chechen_War/gAM9fTTq">International response to the Second Chechen War</a>
The conflict between <a href="/facts/Chechens/xXzyEMjB">Chechens</a> and <a href="/facts/Russians/RBG9H1Rj">Russians</a> is also seen outside the Russian border. During the <a href="/facts/Syrian_Civil_War/UD2gymjC">Syrian Civil War</a>, Chechen fighters that remain loyal to the collapsed <a href="/facts/Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria/o3pAkwlg">Chechen Republic of Ichkeria</a> and radical Chechen <a href="/facts/Islamism/4u3G2nEf">Islamists</a> had also fought against Russian Army and its ally <a href="/facts/Bashar_al-Assad/uFjUSQv6">Bashar al-Assad</a> in <a href="/facts/Syria/7pDXGzq8">Syria</a>, with desire to overthrow the Assad Government and replace it by a more Chechen-sympathized government.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a>
In 2014, many anti-Russian Chechens volunteered to fight in the <a href="/facts/War_in_Donbas_(2014%E2%80%932022)/h8WDdxa4">war in Donbas</a> against Russia and the <a href="/facts/Russian_separatist_forces_in_Donbas/3H9q93aB">Russian separatist forces in Donbas</a> as part of the <a href="/facts/Ukrainian_volunteer_battalions/pfn1Kjva">Ukrainian volunteer battalions</a>, forming the <a href="/facts/Sheikh_Mansur_Battalion/7RyFnwkj">Sheikh Mansur</a> and <a href="/facts/Dzhokhar_Dudayev_Battalion/w8HfMYy2">Dzhokhar Dudayev Battalions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> The pro-Ukrainian Chechens see the <a href="/facts/Russo-Ukrainian_War/kE7cHvoQ">Russo-Ukrainian War</a> as a contribution to the larger anti-Russian struggle.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> While Chechen forces under Kadyrov have been present both during the <a href="/facts/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation/8r8zGRyf">annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation</a> and the subsequent War in Donbas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a>
On 23 August 2019, <a href="/facts/Zelimkhan_Khangoshvili/IqbsKMy0">Zelimkhan Khangoshvili</a>, a former military platoon commander for the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria during the Second Chechen War, was assassinated in a <a href="/facts/Berlin/pMTIRNXK">Berlin</a> park, by a Russian <a href="/facts/Federal_Security_Service/2QqBHc6P">FSB</a> agent who was subsequently sentenced to life imprisonment by a German court.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a>
<a href="/facts/Chechen_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine/9z98dbCN">Chechnya had significant involvement</a> with the 2022 <a href="/facts/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine/kE7cHvoQ">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, pro-Russian <a href="/facts/Kadyrovites/6nJHwuWq">Kadyrovites</a> from Chechnya were deployed in Ukraine as a boost to the Russian forces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> Western sources described the deployment of Chechen Kadyrovites as "leveraging the very presence of Chechen soldiers in Ukraine as a psychological weapon against Ukrainians".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> While the Ukrainian Chechen volunteer battalions resumed their fight against the Russian forces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a>

<h2 id="casualties">Casualties</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Chechen_genocide/PaDFtVnW">Chechen genocide</a> and <a href="/facts/Casualties_of_the_Second_Chechen_War/NLamoe5V">Casualties of the Second Chechen War</a>
The exact number of Chechen casualties of this conflict are difficult to ascertain due to lack of records and the long time period of the clashes. One source indicates that at least 60,000 <a href="/facts/Chechens/xXzyEMjB">Chechens</a> were killed in the <a href="/facts/First_Chechen_War/R8n3Jjk1">First</a> and <a href="/facts/Second_Chechen_War/yYtF25ST">Second Chechen War</a> in the 1990s and 2000s alone. <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a> High estimates of these two wars range of up to 150,000 or 160,000 killed, as put by Taus Djabrailov, the head of Chechnya's interim Parliament.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a>
According to the Russian Ministry of Ethnic Affairs, more than 21,000 Russians were killed in Chechnya from 1991 to 1999 (not counting those killed in military operations).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Chechen_involvement_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine/9z98dbCN">Chechen involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_the_North_Caucasus/ewQCNDFI">Islamic State insurgency in the North Caucasus</a></li></ul>

<h3>Notes</h3>

<h3>Citations</h3>

<h3>Bibliography</h3>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/John_B._Dunlop/9brIXPu4">Dunlop, John B.</a> (1998). Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780521636193.</li>
<li>Crawford, Marisa; Rossiter, Graham (2006). Reasons for Living: Education and Young People's Search for Meaning, Identity and Spirituality. Aust Council for Ed Research. p. 99. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780864316134.</li>
<li>James, Patrick; Goetze, David (2001). Evolutionary Theory and Ethnic Conflict. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780275971434.</li>
<li>Kempton, Daniel R.; Clark, Terry D. (2001). Unity or Separation: Center-Periphery Relations in the Former Soviet Union. Praeger. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0275973063.</li>
<li>King, Charles (2008). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ghostoffreedomhi0000king">The Ghost of Freedon: A History of the Caucasus</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-517775-6.</li>
<li>Kumar, Rajan (2006). Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict Resolution: A Case Study of Chechnya. Gurgaon: Hope India. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9788178711195.</li>
<li>Perovic, Jeronim (2018). From Conquest to Deportation. The North Caucasus under Russian Rule. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780190889890.</li>
<li>Schaefer, Robert W. (2010). The Insurgency in Chechnya and the North Caucasus: From Gazavat to Jihad. ABC-CLIO. pp. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61">49–61</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780313386343.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Richard_H._Shultz/tsYLqke1">Shultz, Richard H.</a> (2006). <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul">Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat</a>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780231129824.</li>
<li>Smith, Sebastian (2005). Allah's Mountains: The Battle for Chechnya. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1850439790.</li>
<li>Ware, Robert Bruce (2005). "A Multitude of Evils: Mythology and Political Failure in Chechnya". In Richard Sakwa (ed.). Chechnya: From Past to Future. London: Anthem Press. pp. 79–115. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-84331-165-8.</li>
<li>Daniel, Elton L. <a href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/golestan-treaty">"Golestān Treaty"</a>. <a href="/facts/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica/vpxGm0xG">Encyclopædia Iranica</a>. Retrieved 10 October 2013.</li>
<li>Grant, Thomas D. (2000). <a href="https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1276&context=auilr">"Current Development: Afghanistan Recognizes Chechnya"</a>. <a href="/facts/American_University_International_Law_Review/66WDVNXg">American University International Law Review</a>. 15 (4): 869–894.</li>
<li>Ахмадов, Ш.Б. (2002). <a href="https://dzurdzuki.com/download/ahmadov-sh-b-chechnya-i-ingushetiya-v-hush-nachale-xix-veka-2002-god/">Чечня и Ингушетия в XIII – начале XIX века</a> [Chechnya and Ingushetia in the 18th – early 19th centuries] (in Russian). pp. 354–355.</li>
<li>Осмаев, М.К. (2017). <a href="https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/k-voprosu-ob-istorii-chechenskogo-knyazhestva-xvii-xviii-vv">"К вопросу об истории Чеченского княжества (XVII-XVIII вв. )"</a> [On the question of the history of the Chechen principality (17th–18th centuries)]. Вестник Вятского Государственного Университета (in Russian) (5): 34–38.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"Chechnya – Narrative" (PDF). University of Southern California. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-09-02. Retrieved 12 July 2013. Russian military involvement into the Caucasus started early in the 18th century and in 1785–1791 the first major rebellion in Chechnya against the imperial rule took place. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160902143050/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ir/cews/database/Chechnya/chechnya.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160902143050/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ir/cews/database/Chechnya/chechnya.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">"Chronology for Chechens in Russia". University of Maryland. Archived from the original on 2013-12-20. Retrieved 12 July 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131220225716/http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/chronology.asp?groupId=36504" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20131220225716/http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/chronology.asp?groupId=36504</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">"Chechnya – Narrative" (PDF). University of Southern California. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-09-02. Retrieved 12 July 2013. Russian military involvement into the Caucasus started early in the 18th century and in 1785–1791 the first major rebellion in Chechnya against the imperial rule took place. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160902143050/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ir/cews/database/Chechnya/chechnya.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160902143050/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ir/cews/database/Chechnya/chechnya.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">"The Dormant Stage of the Chechen Insurgency and the Challenges It Poses to the Pro-Russian Chechen Regime". 22 May 2019. <a href="https://thesecuritydistillery.org/all-articles/the-dormant-stage-of-the-chechen-insurgency-and-the-challenges-it-poses-to-the-pro-russian-chechen-regime" target="_blank">https://thesecuritydistillery.org/all-articles/the-dormant-stage-of-the-chechen-insurgency-and-the-challenges-it-poses-to-the-pro-russian-chechen-regime</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">"Insurgency in the North Caucasus: Lessons of the First Chechen War | Small Wars Journal". <a href="https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/insurgency-north-caucasus-lessons-first-chechen-war" target="_blank">https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/insurgency-north-caucasus-lessons-first-chechen-war</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">"Ramzan Kadyrov claims the Chechen insurgency is over. Is it?". 18 February 2021. <a href="https://healix.com/sharing-knowledge-and-news/chechen-insurgency/" target="_blank">https://healix.com/sharing-knowledge-and-news/chechen-insurgency/</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">"Глава ФСБ объявил о ликвидации бандподполья на Северном Кавказе". vz.ru (in Russian). 2017-12-19. <a href="https://vz.ru/news/2017/12/19/900385.html" target="_blank">https://vz.ru/news/2017/12/19/900385.html</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">"Россия выиграла еще одну важнейшую битву". vz.ru (in Russian). 2017-12-19. <a href="https://vz.ru/politics/2017/12/19/900398.html" target="_blank">https://vz.ru/politics/2017/12/19/900398.html</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Mark Youngman (27 June 2017). "Lessons From The Decline Of The North Caucasus Insurgency". crestresearch.ac.uk. Centre For Research and Evidence on Security Threats. Retrieved 2021-01-12. <a href="https://crestresearch.ac.uk/comment/lessons-north-caucasus-insurgency/" target="_blank">https://crestresearch.ac.uk/comment/lessons-north-caucasus-insurgency/</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Schaefer 2010, pp. 49–50. - Schaefer, Robert W. (2010). The Insurgency in Chechnya and the North Caucasus: From Gazavat to Jihad. ABC-CLIO. pp. 49–61. ISBN 9780313386343. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Schaefer 2010, pp. 51–54. - Schaefer, Robert W. (2010). The Insurgency in Chechnya and the North Caucasus: From Gazavat to Jihad. ABC-CLIO. pp. 49–61. ISBN 9780313386343. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Адилсултанов, Асрудин (1992). Акки и аккинцы в XVI—XVIII веках. pp. 77–78. ISBN 5766605404. <a href="5766605404" target="_blank">5766605404</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Tesaev, Z.A. (2020). К вопросу об этнической картине в Терско-Сулакском междуречье в XIV–XVIII вв. [To the question of ethnic picture in the Tersko-Sulak intercourse in the 14th–18th centuries] (PDF). Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of the Chechen Republic (in Russian). 48 (1): 72–86. doi:10.25744/vestnik.2020.48.1.011. Retrieved 2020-08-04. <a href="К вопросу об этнической картине в Терско-Сулакском междуречье в XIV–XVIII вв." target="_blank">К вопросу об этнической картине в Терско-Сулакском междуречье в XIV–XVIII вв.</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">"Религиозная борьба на территории Чечни и Дагестана (Амин Тесаев) / Проза.ру". proza.ru. Retrieved 2020-08-04. <a href="https://proza.ru/2017/06/26/2137" target="_blank">https://proza.ru/2017/06/26/2137</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Адилсултанов, Асрудин (1992). Акки и аккинцы в XVI—XVIII веках. p. 84. ISBN 5766605404. <a href="5766605404" target="_blank">5766605404</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">"Neue Seite 39". www.vostlit.info. Retrieved 2020-08-04. <a href="http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVI/Russ_Chech_otn/21-40/28.htm" target="_blank">http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/Dokumenty/Kavkaz/XVI/Russ_Chech_otn/21-40/28.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Адилсултанов, Асрудин (1992). Акки и аккинцы в XVI—XVIII веках. pp. 87–90. ISBN 5766605404. <a href="5766605404" target="_blank">5766605404</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Schaefer 2010, pp. 54–55. - Schaefer, Robert W. (2010). The Insurgency in Chechnya and the North Caucasus: From Gazavat to Jihad. ABC-CLIO. pp. 49–61. ISBN 9780313386343. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Schaefer 2010, pp. 55–57. - Schaefer, Robert W. (2010). The Insurgency in Chechnya and the North Caucasus: From Gazavat to Jihad. ABC-CLIO. pp. 49–61. ISBN 9780313386343. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Ахмадов 2002, p. 346–347. - Ахмадов, Ш.Б. (2002). Чечня и Ингушетия в XIII – начале XIX века [Chechnya and Ingushetia in the 18th – early 19th centuries] (in Russian). pp. 354–355. <a href="https://dzurdzuki.com/download/ahmadov-sh-b-chechnya-i-ingushetiya-v-hush-nachale-xix-veka-2002-god/" target="_blank">https://dzurdzuki.com/download/ahmadov-sh-b-chechnya-i-ingushetiya-v-hush-nachale-xix-veka-2002-god/</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Осмаев 2017, p. 36. - Осмаев, М.К. (2017). "К вопросу об истории Чеченского княжества (XVII-XVIII вв. )" [On the question of the history of the Chechen principality (17th–18th centuries)]. Вестник Вятского Государственного Университета (in Russian) (5): 34–38. <a href="https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/k-voprosu-ob-istorii-chechenskogo-knyazhestva-xvii-xviii-vv" target="_blank">https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/k-voprosu-ob-istorii-chechenskogo-knyazhestva-xvii-xviii-vv</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Ахмадов 2002, p. 347. - Ахмадов, Ш.Б. (2002). Чечня и Ингушетия в XIII – начале XIX века [Chechnya and Ingushetia in the 18th – early 19th centuries] (in Russian). pp. 354–355. <a href="https://dzurdzuki.com/download/ahmadov-sh-b-chechnya-i-ingushetiya-v-hush-nachale-xix-veka-2002-god/" target="_blank">https://dzurdzuki.com/download/ahmadov-sh-b-chechnya-i-ingushetiya-v-hush-nachale-xix-veka-2002-god/</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Ахмадов 2002, p. 348–351. - Ахмадов, Ш.Б. (2002). Чечня и Ингушетия в XIII – начале XIX века [Chechnya and Ingushetia in the 18th – early 19th centuries] (in Russian). pp. 354–355. <a href="https://dzurdzuki.com/download/ahmadov-sh-b-chechnya-i-ingushetiya-v-hush-nachale-xix-veka-2002-god/" target="_blank">https://dzurdzuki.com/download/ahmadov-sh-b-chechnya-i-ingushetiya-v-hush-nachale-xix-veka-2002-god/</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">See: Siege of Kizlyar (July 1785); Siege of Kizlyar (August 1785) <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kizlyar_(July_1785)" target="_blank">/wiki/Siege_of_Kizlyar_(July_1785)</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Schaefer 2010, pp. 55–58. - Schaefer, Robert W. (2010). The Insurgency in Chechnya and the North Caucasus: From Gazavat to Jihad. ABC-CLIO. pp. 49–61. ISBN 9780313386343. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Dunlop 1998, pp. 10–13. - Dunlop, John B. (1998). Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521636193. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Shultz 2006, p. 115. - Shultz, Richard H. (2006). Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231129824. <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Daniel, pp. 13–18. - Daniel, Elton L. "Golestān Treaty". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 10 October 2013. <a href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/golestan-treaty" target="_blank">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/golestan-treaty</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Schaefer 2010, pp. 58–61. - Schaefer, Robert W. (2010). The Insurgency in Chechnya and the North Caucasus: From Gazavat to Jihad. ABC-CLIO. pp. 49–61. ISBN 9780313386343. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IGj4B1rdcu0C&dq=yermolov&pg=PA61</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Shultz 2006, p. 116. - Shultz, Richard H. (2006). Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231129824. <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Shultz 2006, p. 116. - Shultz, Richard H. (2006). Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231129824. <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Shultz 2006, p. 116. - Shultz, Richard H. (2006). Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231129824. <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Shultz 2006, p. 117. - Shultz, Richard H. (2006). Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231129824. <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Shultz 2006, p. 117. - Shultz, Richard H. (2006). Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231129824. <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Shultz 2006, p. 118. - Shultz, Richard H. (2006). Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231129824. <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Shultz 2006, p. 119. - Shultz, Richard H. (2006). Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231129824. <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Shultz 2006, p. 119. - Shultz, Richard H. (2006). Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231129824. <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Ėdiev, D. M. (Dalkhat Muradinovich) (2003). Demograficheskie poteri deportirovannykh narodov SSSR. Stavropolʹ: Izd-vo StGAU "Agrus". p. 28. ISBN 5-9596-0020-X. OCLC 54821667. <a href="5-9596-0020-X" target="_blank">5-9596-0020-X</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Shultz 2006, pp. 120–121. - Shultz, Richard H. (2006). Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231129824. <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Griffin, Roger (2012). Terrorist's creed : fanatical violence and the human need for meaning. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-137-28472-3. OCLC 812506791. <a href="978-1-137-28472-3" target="_blank">978-1-137-28472-3</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Bahcheli, Tozun; Bartmann, Barry; Srebrnik, Henry Felix (2004). De facto states : the quest for sovereignty. London: Routledge. p. 229. ISBN 0-203-48576-9. OCLC 56907941. <a href="0-203-48576-9" target="_blank">0-203-48576-9</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">"After 73 years, the memory of Stalin's deportation of Chechens and Ingush still haunts the survivors". OC Media. Retrieved 2020-08-03. <a href="https://oc-media.org/features/after-73-years-the-memory-of-stalins-deportation-of-chechens-and-ingush-still-haunts-the-survivors/" target="_blank">https://oc-media.org/features/after-73-years-the-memory-of-stalins-deportation-of-chechens-and-ingush-still-haunts-the-survivors/</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Gammer, M. (2006). The lone wolf and the bear : three centuries of Chechen defiance of Russian rule. London: Hurst & Co. p. 170. ISBN 1-85065-743-2. OCLC 56450364. <a href="1-85065-743-2" target="_blank">1-85065-743-2</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Gammer, M. (2006). The lone wolf and the bear : three centuries of Chechen defiance of Russian rule. London: Hurst & Co. p. 170. ISBN 1-85065-743-2. OCLC 56450364. <a href="1-85065-743-2" target="_blank">1-85065-743-2</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">"Texts adopted - EU-Russia relations". European Parliament. 26 February 2004. P5_TA(2004)0121. Retrieved 2020-08-09. <a href="https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&language=EN&reference=P5-TA-2004-0121" target="_blank">https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&language=EN&reference=P5-TA-2004-0121</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">"Chechnya: European Parliament recognises the genocide of the Chechen People in 1944". UNPO. February 27, 2004. Archived from the original on 2012-06-04. Retrieved 2020-08-09. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120604125012/http://www.unpo.org/article/438" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120604125012/http://www.unpo.org/article/438</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">Узел, Кавказский (1 March 2004). "European Parliament recognizes deportation of Chechens and Ingushetians ordered by Stalin as genocide". Caucasian Knot. Retrieved 2020-08-09. <a href="https://www.eng.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/2288/" target="_blank">https://www.eng.kavkaz-uzel.eu/articles/2288/</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Shultz 2006, p. 121. - Shultz, Richard H. (2006). Insurgents, Terrorists, And Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231129824. <a href="https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/insurgentsterror00shul</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Seely, R. Russo-Chechen conflict, 1800–2000: A Deadly Embrace. Frank Cass Publishers. 2001. <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Seely, R. Russo-Chechen conflict, 1800–2000: A Deadly Embrace. Frank Cass Publishers. 2001. <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">O.P. Orlov; V.P. Cherkassov. "Russia–Chechnya: A chain of mistakes and crimes" Россия — Чечня: Цепь ошибок и преступлений (in Russian). Memorial. Archived from the original on 2017-02-09. Retrieved 2013-09-27. <a href="Россия — Чечня: Цепь ошибок и преступлений" target="_blank">Россия — Чечня: Цепь ошибок и преступлений</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Kempton & Clark 2001, p. 122. - Kempton, Daniel R.; Clark, Terry D. (2001). Unity or Separation: Center-Periphery Relations in the Former Soviet Union. Praeger. ISBN 978-0275973063. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Smith 2005, p. 134. - Smith, Sebastian (2005). Allah's Mountains: The Battle for Chechnya. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 978-1850439790. <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">King 2008, pp. 234–237. - King, Charles (2008). The Ghost of Freedon: A History of the Caucasus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517775-6. <a href="https://archive.org/details/ghostoffreedomhi0000king" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/ghostoffreedomhi0000king</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">Ware 2005, pp. 79–87. - Ware, Robert Bruce (2005). "A Multitude of Evils: Mythology and Political Failure in Chechnya". In Richard Sakwa (ed.). Chechnya: From Past to Future. London: Anthem Press. pp. 79–115. ISBN 1-84331-165-8. <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Kumar 2006, p. 61. - Kumar, Rajan (2006). Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict Resolution: A Case Study of Chechnya. Gurgaon: Hope India. ISBN 9788178711195. <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Kumar 2006, p. 65. - Kumar, Rajan (2006). Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict Resolution: A Case Study of Chechnya. Gurgaon: Hope India. ISBN 9788178711195. <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">James & Goetze 2001, p. 169. - James, Patrick; Goetze, David (2001). Evolutionary Theory and Ethnic Conflict. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 9780275971434. <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">James & Goetze 2001, p. 169. - James, Patrick; Goetze, David (2001). Evolutionary Theory and Ethnic Conflict. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 9780275971434. <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">James & Goetze 2001, p. 169. - James, Patrick; Goetze, David (2001). Evolutionary Theory and Ethnic Conflict. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 9780275971434. <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Parsons, Robert (8 July 2006). "Basayev's Death Confirmed". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 8 July 2013. <a href="http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1069732.html" target="_blank">http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1069732.html</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Rogio, Bill (25 June 2010). "US designates Caucasus Emirate leader Doku Umarov a global terrorist". Long War Journal. Retrieved 10 July 2013. After Basayev's death in 2006, the Chechen and Caucasus jihadists united under the command of Doku Umarov, one of the last remaining original leaders of the Chechen rebellion and a close associate of al Qaeda. <a href="http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2010/06/us_designates_caucas.php" target="_blank">http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2010/06/us_designates_caucas.php</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Williams, Carol J. (19 April 2013). "A history of terrorism out of Chechnya". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 13 July 2013. <a href="https://www.latimes.com/world/la-xpm-2013-apr-19-la-fg-boston-chechnya-radicals-20130420-story.html" target="_blank">https://www.latimes.com/world/la-xpm-2013-apr-19-la-fg-boston-chechnya-radicals-20130420-story.html</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Feifer, Gregory (9 September 2009). "Ten Years On, Troubling Questions Linger Over Russian Apartment Bombings". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 13 July 2013. <a href="http://www.rferl.org/content/Ten_Years_On_Troubling_Questions_Linger_Over_Russian_Apartment_Bombings/1818652.html" target="_blank">http://www.rferl.org/content/Ten_Years_On_Troubling_Questions_Linger_Over_Russian_Apartment_Bombings/1818652.html</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Krechetnikov, Artem (24 October 2012). "Moscow theatre siege: Questions remain unanswered". BBC News. Retrieved 13 July 2013. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20067384" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20067384</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">"Chechen rebel claims Moscow attacks". Al Jazeera. 31 March 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2013. <a href="http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2010/03/2010331171748201274.html" target="_blank">http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2010/03/2010331171748201274.html</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">"Chechen warlord Doku Umarov admits Moscow airport bomb". BBC News. 8 February 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2013. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12388681" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12388681</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">"Chechnya profile". BBC News. 17 January 2018. <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18188085" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18188085</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Harris, Kevan (13 October 2005). "Interview with Georgi Derluguian". NoDoctors.com. Archived from the original on 14 October 2006. Retrieved 24 June 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061014115956/http://www.nodoctors.com/derluguian.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20061014115956/http://www.nodoctors.com/derluguian.html</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">"Page doesn't exist".[permanent dead link‍] <a href="https://www.rferl.org/kadyrov-attacks-on-chechen-police-aimed-at-creating-illusion-/29443710.html" target="_blank">https://www.rferl.org/kadyrov-attacks-on-chechen-police-aimed-at-creating-illusion-/29443710.html</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">"Page doesn't exist".[permanent dead link‍] <a href="https://www.rferl.org/chechen-officials-say-four-militants-killed-in-grozny/30890556.html" target="_blank">https://www.rferl.org/chechen-officials-say-four-militants-killed-in-grozny/30890556.html</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">"Page doesn't exist".[permanent dead link‍] <a href="https://www.rferl.org/kadyrov-says-six-armed-militants-killed-in-chechnya/31055416.html" target="_blank">https://www.rferl.org/kadyrov-says-six-armed-militants-killed-in-chechnya/31055416.html</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Nechepurenko, Ivan; Specia, Megan (19 May 2018). "Gunmen Attack Church in Russia's Chechnya Region, Killing 3". The New York Times. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/19/world/europe/chechnya-church-attack-grozny.html" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/19/world/europe/chechnya-church-attack-grozny.html</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Chechens Are Among Foreigners Fighting to Overthrow Bashar al-Assad". Refworld. <a href="https://www.refworld.org/docid/50bf3c772.html" target="_blank">https://www.refworld.org/docid/50bf3c772.html</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">"Ali ash-Shishani: "Like all Chechens in Syria, I miss Chechnya" | NewСaucasus". 9 October 2019. <a href="http://newcaucasus.com/in-english/18201-ali-ash-shishani-like-all-chechens-in-syria-i-miss-chechnya.html" target="_blank">http://newcaucasus.com/in-english/18201-ali-ash-shishani-like-all-chechens-in-syria-i-miss-chechnya.html</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">"'We like partisan warfare.' Chechens fighting in Ukraine - on both sides". the Guardian. 2015-07-24. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 2022-03-19. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/24/chechens-fighting-in-ukraine-on-both-sides" target="_blank">https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/24/chechens-fighting-in-ukraine-on-both-sides</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">"'We like partisan warfare.' Chechens fighting in Ukraine - on both sides". the Guardian. 2015-07-24. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 2022-03-19. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/24/chechens-fighting-in-ukraine-on-both-sides" target="_blank">https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/24/chechens-fighting-in-ukraine-on-both-sides</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">"'We like partisan warfare.' Chechens fighting in Ukraine - on both sides". the Guardian. 2015-07-24. Archived from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 2022-03-19. <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/24/chechens-fighting-in-ukraine-on-both-sides" target="_blank">https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/24/chechens-fighting-in-ukraine-on-both-sides</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">"Berlin Chechen shooting: Russian assassination suspected". BBC News. 27 August 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2019. <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-49483090" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-49483090</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">"Chechen leader, a Putin ally, says his forces deployed to Ukraine". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2022-03-24. <a href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/26/putins-chechen-ally-says-forces-deployed-ukraine-to-back-russia" target="_blank">https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/26/putins-chechen-ally-says-forces-deployed-ukraine-to-back-russia</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">Justin Ling. "Russia Tries to Terrorize Ukraine With Images of Chechen Soldiers." Foreign Policy. 26 February 2022. Retrieved 26 February 2022. <a href="/wiki/Justin_Ling" target="_blank">/wiki/Justin_Ling</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Hauer, Neil (2022-03-03). "Chechens Fighting Chechens in Ukraine". New Lines Magazine. Retrieved 2022-03-27. <a href="https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/chechens-fighting-chechens-in-ukraine/" target="_blank">https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/chechens-fighting-chechens-in-ukraine/</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Crawford & Rossiter 2006, p. 99. - Crawford, Marisa; Rossiter, Graham (2006). Reasons for Living: Education and Young People's Search for Meaning, Identity and Spirituality. Aust Council for Ed Research. p. 99. ISBN 9780864316134. <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">"Russia: Chechen Official Puts War Death Toll At 160,000". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 16 August 2005. Retrieved 4 October 2017. <a href="https://www.rferl.org/a/1060708.html" target="_blank">https://www.rferl.org/a/1060708.html</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">https://web.archive.org/web/20010718065203/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/3376.html##15 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010718065203/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/3376.html##15" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20010718065203/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/3376.html##15</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Chechen–Russian conflict open-in-new

Chechen–Russian conflict