Menu
Home
People
Places
Arts
History
Plants & Animals
Science
Life & Culture
Technology
Reference.org
Continental shelf
open-in-new
<h2 id="topography">Topography</h2> <p>The shelf usually ends at a point of increasing slope<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> (called the <i>shelf break</i>). The sea floor below the break is the <i>continental slope</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> Below the slope is the <i>continental rise</i>, which finally merges into the deep ocean floor, the <a href="/facts/Abyssal_plain/UWv7Tt5b">abyssal plain</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> The continental shelf and the slope are part of the <a href="/facts/Continental_margin/Wgc47bX7">continental margin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <p>The shelf area is commonly subdivided into the <i>inner continental shelf</i>, <i>mid continental shelf</i>, and <i>outer continental shelf</i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> each with their specific <a href="/facts/Geomorphology/MDf2I2h5">geomorphology</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Marine_biology/3pNR9o6L">marine biology</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>The character of the shelf changes dramatically at the shelf break, where the continental slope begins. With a few exceptions, the shelf break is located at a remarkably uniform depth of roughly 140 m (460 ft); this is likely a hallmark of past ice ages, when sea level was lower than it is now.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>The continental slope is much steeper than the shelf; the average angle is 3°, but it can be as low as 1° or as high as 10°.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> The slope is often cut with <a href="/facts/Submarine_canyon/GptxqPlX">submarine canyons</a>. The physical mechanisms involved in forming these canyons were not well understood until the 1960s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="geographical-distribution">Geographical distribution</h2> <p>Continental shelves cover an area of about 27 million km2 (10 million sq mi), equal to about 7% of the surface area of the oceans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> The width of the continental shelf varies considerably—it is not uncommon for an area to have virtually no shelf at all, particularly where the forward edge of an advancing <a href="/facts/Oceanic_crust/0lGjI7jN">oceanic plate</a> dives beneath <a href="/facts/Continental_crust/cGnK3oEr">continental crust</a> in an offshore <a href="/facts/Subduction/rkasNdTo">subduction zone</a> such as off the coast of <a href="/facts/Chile/uEyTfEcx">Chile</a> or the west coast of <a href="/facts/Sumatra/Fo192kJb">Sumatra</a>. </p><p>The largest shelf—the <a href="/facts/Siberian_Shelf/uPEvCgvB">Siberian Shelf</a> in the <a href="/facts/Arctic_Ocean/l6HS3QyV">Arctic Ocean</a>—stretches to 1,500 kilometers (930 mi) in width. The <a href="/facts/South_China_Sea/WRFXLgIg">South China Sea</a> lies over another extensive area of continental shelf, the <a href="/facts/Sunda_Shelf/HCHXUN4v">Sunda Shelf</a>, which joins <a href="/facts/Borneo/1aIGfyvV">Borneo</a>, Sumatra, and <a href="/facts/Java_(island)/2MNA2rLm">Java</a> to the Asian mainland. Other familiar bodies of water that overlie continental shelves are the <a href="/facts/North_Sea/htGJNmsb">North Sea</a> and the <a href="/facts/Persian_Gulf/W78AfnC1">Persian Gulf</a>. The average width of continental shelves is about 80 km (50 mi). The depth of the shelf also varies, but is generally limited to water shallower than 100 m (330 ft).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> The slope of the shelf is usually quite low, on the order of 0.5°; <a href="/facts/Terrain/r2lduLeI">vertical relief</a> is also minimal, at less than 20 m (66 ft).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>Though the continental shelf is treated as a <a href="/facts/Physical_geography/NByHKLCQ">physiographic</a> province of the <a href="/facts/Ocean/8W8lYgjD">ocean</a>, it is not part of the deep ocean basin proper, but the flooded margins of the continent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Passive_margin/1pbsuGnQ">Passive continental margins</a> such as most of the <a href="/facts/Atlantic_Ocean/EI4uChIb">Atlantic</a> coasts have wide and shallow shelves, made of thick sedimentary wedges derived from long erosion of a neighboring continent. <a href="/facts/Convergent_boundary/rhgWhQx3">Active continental margins</a> have narrow, relatively steep shelves, due to frequent <a href="/facts/Earthquake/NGjIzagw">earthquakes</a> that move sediment to the deep sea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> Continental shelf widths<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> (in km)<table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2">Ocean</th><th colspan="2">Active Margin</th><th colspan="2">Passive Margin</th><th colspan="2">Total Margin</th></tr><tr><th>Mean</th><th>Maximum</th><th>Mean</th><th>Maximum</th><th>Mean</th><th>Maximum</th></tr><tr><th>Arctic Ocean</th><td>0</td><td>0</td><td>104.1 ± 1.7</td><td>389</td><td>104.1 ± 1.7</td><td>389</td></tr><tr><th>Indian Ocean</th><td>19 ± 0.61</td><td>175</td><td>47.6 ± 0.8</td><td>238</td><td>37 ± 0.58</td><td>238</td></tr><tr><th>Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea</th><td>11 ± 0.29</td><td>79</td><td>38.7 ± 1.5</td><td>166</td><td>17 ± 0.44</td><td>166</td></tr><tr><th>North Atlantic Ocean</th><td>28 ± 1.08</td><td>259</td><td>115.7 ± 1.6</td><td>434</td><td>85 ± 1.14</td><td>434</td></tr><tr><th>North Pacific Ocean</th><td>39 ± 0.71</td><td>412</td><td>34.9 ± 1.2</td><td>114</td><td>39 ± 0.68</td><td>412</td></tr><tr><th>South Atlantic Ocean</th><td>24 ± 2.6</td><td>55</td><td>123.0 ± 2.5</td><td>453</td><td>104 ± 2.4</td><td>453</td></tr><tr><th>South Pacific Ocean</th><td>214 ± 2.86</td><td>357</td><td>96.1 ± 2.0</td><td>778</td><td>110 ± 1.92</td><td>778</td></tr><tr><th>All Oceans</th><td>31 ± 0.4</td><td>412</td><td>88.2 ± 0.7</td><td>778</td><td>57 ± 0.41</td><td>778</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="sediments">Sediments</h2> <p>The continental shelves are covered by <a href="/facts/Terrigenous_sediment/ojGj7MQo">terrigenous sediments</a>; that is, those derived from erosion of the continents. However, little of the sediment is from current <a href="/facts/River/GxdjEX21">rivers</a>; some 60–70% of the sediment on the world's shelves is <i>relict sediment</i>, deposited during the last ice age, when sea level was 100–120 m lower than it is now.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p>Sediments usually become increasingly fine with distance from the coast; sand is limited to shallow, wave-agitated waters, while silt and clays are deposited in quieter, deep water far offshore.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> These accumulate 15–40 centimetres (5.9–15.7 in) every millennium, much faster than deep-sea <a href="/facts/Pelagic_sediment/D286yP33">pelagic sediments</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="shelf-seas">Shelf seas</h2> <p>"Shelf seas" are the ocean waters on the continental shelf. Their motion is controlled by the combined influences of the <a href="/facts/Tide/zNstvWPv">tides</a>, wind-forcing and <a href="/facts/Brackish_water/f6z3UXCa">brackish water</a> formed from <a href="/facts/River_inflow/qxKhJCVP">river inflows</a> (<a href="/facts/Region_of_freshwater_influence/d06GmJ1l">Regions of Freshwater Influence</a>). These regions can often be biologically highly productive due to mixing caused by the shallower waters and the enhanced current speeds. Despite covering only about 8% of Earth's ocean surface area,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> shelf seas support 15–20% of global <a href="/facts/Primary_productivity/14RzcF5E">primary productivity</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p><p>In temperate continental shelf seas, three distinctive oceanographic regimes are found, as a consequence of the interplay between surface heating, lateral buoyancy gradients (due to river inflow), and turbulent mixing by the tides and to a lesser extent the wind.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>In shallower water with stronger tides and away from river mouths, tidal turbulence overcomes the stratifying influence of surface heating, and the <a href="/facts/Water_column/RNQbAVJj">water column</a> remains well mixed for the entire seasonal cycle.</li> <li>In contrast, in deeper water, the surface heating wins out in summer, to produce seasonal stratification with a warm surface layer overlying the isolated deep water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></li></ul> (The well mixed and seasonally stratifying regimes are separated by persistent features called tidal mixing fronts.)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> <ul><li>A third regime which links <a href="/facts/Estuary/WmkSInmK">estuaries</a> to shelf seas, Regions of Freshwater Influence (ROFIs), is found where estuaries enter shelf seas, for example in the Liverpool Bay area of the <a href="/facts/Irish_Sea/m2SqNwvx">Irish Sea</a> and Rhine Outflow region of the <a href="/facts/North_Sea/htGJNmsb">North Sea</a>. Here, stratification can vary on timescales from the <a href="/facts/Semidiurnal_tide/zNstvWPv">semidiurnal</a> tidal cycle through to the <a href="/facts/Springs_(tide)/zNstvWPv">springs-neap</a> tidal cycle due to a process known as "tidal straining".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> While the <a href="/facts/North_Sea/htGJNmsb">North Sea</a> and <a href="/facts/Irish_Sea/m2SqNwvx">Irish Sea</a> are two of the better studied shelf seas,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> they are not necessarily representative of all shelf seas as there is a wide variety of behaviours to be found:</li></ul> <p><a href="/facts/Indian_Ocean/Kv0crwKG">Indian Ocean</a> shelf seas are dominated by major river systems, including the <a href="/facts/Ganges/q0IGurvB">Ganges</a> and <a href="/facts/Indus_River/7vTRHA4t">Indus</a> rivers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> The shelf seas around <a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg">New Zealand</a> are complicated because the submerged continent of <a href="/facts/Zealandia/sMl4zeGA">Zealandia</a> creates wide plateaus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> Shelf seas around <a href="/facts/Antarctica/bEM5Lem5">Antarctica</a> and the shores of the <a href="/facts/Arctic_Ocean/l6HS3QyV">Arctic Ocean</a> are influenced by <a href="/facts/Sea_ice/tgTbCYwg">sea ice</a> production and <a href="/facts/Polynya/15QwVxda">polynya</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p><p>There is evidence that changing wind, rainfall, and regional ocean currents in a warming ocean are having an effect on some shelf seas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> Improved data collection via <a href="/facts/Integrated_Ocean_Observing_System/p8AwjzjK">Integrated Ocean Observing Systems</a> in shelf sea regions is making identification of these changes possible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="biota">Biota</h2> <p>Continental shelves teem with life because of the sunlight available in shallow waters, in contrast to the biotic desert of the oceans' <a href="/facts/Abyssal_plain/UWv7Tt5b">abyssal plain</a>. The <a href="/facts/Pelagic_zone/D6heJr5f">pelagic</a> (water column) environment of the continental shelf constitutes the <a href="/facts/Neritic_zone/7SW3Ekar">neritic zone</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Benthic_zone/N3lM6P7I">benthic</a> (sea floor) province of the shelf is the <a href="/facts/Sublittoral/nVG7Qk4s">sublittoral zone</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> The shelves make up less than 10% of the ocean, and a rough estimate suggests that only about 30% of the continental shelf sea floor receives enough sunlight to allow benthic photosynthesis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> </p><p>Though the shelves are usually fertile, if <a href="/facts/Anoxic_event/522Mb4vU">anoxic</a> conditions prevail during sedimentation, the deposits may over <a href="/facts/Geologic_time_scale/vBAm0D8Q">geologic time</a> become <a href="/facts/Source_rock/4GHJwIYJ">sources</a> for <a href="/facts/Fossil_fuel/BPgxAqB7">fossil fuels</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="economic-significance">Economic significance</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Offshore_drilling/l4rHmqvH">Offshore drilling</a></p> <p>The continental shelf is the best understood part of the ocean floor, as it is relatively accessible. Most commercial exploitation of the sea, such as extraction of metallic ore, non-metallic ore, and <a href="/facts/Hydrocarbon/Dcg95Ju5">hydrocarbons</a>, takes place on the continental shelf. </p><p>Sovereign rights over their continental shelves down to a depth of 100 m (330 ft) or to a distance where the depth of waters admitted of <a href="/facts/Exploitation_of_natural_resources/YUmAXsEg">resource exploitation</a> were claimed by the marine nations that signed the <a href="/facts/Convention_on_the_Continental_Shelf/ckYEkGhy">Convention on the Continental Shelf</a> drawn up by the UN's <a href="/facts/International_Law_Commission/d0DV4Foj">International Law Commission</a> in 1958. This was partly superseded by the 1982 <a href="/facts/United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea/t2PtV3aq">United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea</a> (UNCLOS).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> The 1982 convention created the 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone, plus continental shelf rights for states with physical continental shelves that extend beyond that distance. </p><p>The legal definition of a continental shelf differs significantly from the geological definition. UNCLOS states that the shelf extends to the limit of the <a href="/facts/Continental_margin/Wgc47bX7">continental margin</a>, but no less than 200 nmi (370 km; 230 mi) and no more than 350 nmi (650 km; 400 mi) from the <a href="/facts/Baseline_(sea)/96mzl6Cx">baseline</a>. Thus inhabited volcanic islands such as the <a href="/facts/Canary_Islands/7lfpqymu">Canaries</a>, which have no actual continental shelf, nonetheless have a legal continental shelf, whereas uninhabitable islands have no shelf. </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>Environment portal</li><li>Ecology portal</li><li>Geography portal</li><li>Weather portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Baseline_(sea)/96mzl6Cx">Baseline</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Island/46Apq1bJ">Continental island</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Continental_shelf_of_Brazil/z4gHc9Tu">Continental shelf of Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Continental_shelf_pump/9AY9hDN8">Continental shelf pump</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Exclusive_economic_zone/UtMbSd3w">Exclusive economic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/International_waters/PUPq5zmR">International waters</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Land_bridge/WT3Jzmgu">Land bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Outer_Continental_Shelf/TBU5DueR">Outer Continental Shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Passive_margin/1pbsuGnQ">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Region_of_freshwater_influence/d06GmJ1l">Region of freshwater influence</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Territorial_waters/ss9s492R">Territorial waters</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <ul><li>Atkinson, Larry P.; Lee, Thomas N.; Blanton, Jackson O.; Chandler, William S. (30 May 1983). <a href="https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1174&context=ccpo_pubs">"Climatology of the southeastern United States continental shelf waters"</a>. <i>Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans</i>. 88 (C8): 4705–4718. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983JGR....88.4705A">1983JGR....88.4705A</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2FJC088iC08p04705">10.1029/JC088iC08p04705</a>.</li> <li>de Haas, Henk; van Weering, Tjeerd C.E; de Stigter, Henko (March 2002). "Organic carbon in shelf seas: sinks or sources, processes and products". <i>Continental Shelf Research</i>. 22 (5): 691–717. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002CSR....22..691D">2002CSR....22..691D</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0278-4343%2801%2900093-0">10.1016/S0278-4343(01)00093-0</a>.</li> <li><a href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/539632/shelf-break">"shelf break – geology"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>.</li> <li>Figueiredo, Alberto Garcia; Pacheco, Carlos Eduardo Pereira; de Vasconcelos, Sérgio Cadena; da Silva, Fabiano Tavares (2016). "Continental Shelf Geomorphology and Sedimentology". <i>Geology and Geomorphology</i>: 13–31. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-85-352-8444-7.50009-3">10.1016/B978-85-352-8444-7.50009-3</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9788535284447.</li> <li>Gattuso, Jean-Pierre; Gentili, B.; Duarte, C. M.; Kleypas, J. A.; Middelburg, J. J.; Antoine, D. (2006). <a href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00330315/document">"Light availability in the coastal ocean: impact on the distribution of benthic photosynthetic organisms and their contribution to primary production"</a>. <i>Biogeosciences</i>. 3 (4). European Geosciences Union: 489–513. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006BGeo....3..489G">2006BGeo....3..489G</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.5194%2Fbg-3-489-2006">10.5194/bg-3-489-2006</a>. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11937%2F23744">20.500.11937/23744</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13715554">13715554</a>. hal-00330315. Retrieved 1 July 2021.</li> <li>Gross, M. Grant (1972). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC"><i>Oceanography: A View of the Earth</i></a>. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-13-629659-1. Retrieved 12 January 2016.</li> <li>Guihou, K.; Polton, J.; Harle, J.; Wakelin, S.; O'Dea, E.; Holt, J. (January 2018). "Kilometric Scale Modeling of the North West European Shelf Seas: Exploring the Spatial and Temporal Variability of Internal Tides: Modeling of the Atlantic European Shelf". <i>Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans</i>. 123 (1): 688–707. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F2017JC012960">10.1002/2017JC012960</a>. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/11336%2F100068">11336/100068</a>.</li> <li>Han, Weiqing; McCreary, Julian P. (15 January 2001). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2000JC000316">"Modeling salinity distributions in the Indian Ocean"</a>. <i>Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans</i>. 106 (C1): 859–877. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JGR...106..859H">2001JGR...106..859H</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2000JC000316">10.1029/2000JC000316</a>.</li> <li>Harris, P.T.; Macmillan-Lawler, M.; Rupp, J.; Baker, E.K. (June 2014). "Geomorphology of the oceans". <i>Marine Geology</i>. 352: 4–24. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MGeol.352....4H">2014MGeol.352....4H</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.margeo.2014.01.011">10.1016/j.margeo.2014.01.011</a>.</li> <li>Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). <i>Glossary of geology</i> (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0922152349.</li> <li>Montero-Serra, Ignasi; Edwards, Martin; Genner, Martin J. (January 2015). "Warming shelf seas drive the subtropicalization of European pelagic fish communities". <i>Global Change Biology</i>. 21 (1): 144–153. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015GCBio..21..144M">2015GCBio..21..144M</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fgcb.12747">10.1111/gcb.12747</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25230844">25230844</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25834528">25834528</a>.</li> <li>Morley, Simon A.; Barnes, David K. A.; Dunn, Michael J. (17 January 2019). <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2018.00507">"Predicting Which Species Succeed in Climate-Forced Polar Seas"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Marine Science</i>. 5: 507. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019FrMaS...5..507M">2019FrMaS...5..507M</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2018.00507">10.3389/fmars.2018.00507</a>.</li> <li>Muelbert, José H.; Acha, Marcelo; Mianzan, Hermes; Guerrero, Raúl; Reta, Raúl; Braga, Elisabete S.; Garcia, Virginia M.T.; Berasategui, Alejandro; Gomez-Erache, Mónica; Ramírez, Fernando (July 2008). "Biological, physical and chemical properties at the Subtropical Shelf Front Zone in the SW Atlantic Continental Shelf". <i>Continental Shelf Research</i>. 28 (13): 1662–1673. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008CSR....28.1662M">2008CSR....28.1662M</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.csr.2007.08.011">10.1016/j.csr.2007.08.011</a>.</li> <li>O’Callaghan, Joanne; Stevens, Craig; <a href="/facts/Moninya_Roughan/nbjY1f2W">Roughan, Moninya</a>; Cornelisen, Chris; Sutton, Philip; Garrett, Sally; Giorli, Giacomo; Smith, Robert O.; Currie, Kim I.; Suanda, Sutara H.; Williams, Michael; Bowen, Melissa; Fernandez, Denise; Vennell, Ross; Knight, Benjamin R.; Barter, Paul; McComb, Peter; Oliver, Megan; Livingston, Mary; Tellier, Pierre; Meissner, Anna; Brewer, Mike; Gall, Mark; Nodder, Scott D.; Decima, Moira; Souza, Joao; Forcén-Vazquez, Aitana; Gardiner, Sarah; Paul-Burke, Kura; Chiswell, Stephen; Roberts, Jim; Hayden, Barb; Biggs, Barry; Macdonald, Helen (26 March 2019). <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2019.00143">"Developing an Integrated Ocean Observing System for New Zealand"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Marine Science</i>. 6: 143. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019FrMaS...6..143O">2019FrMaS...6..143O</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2019.00143">10.3389/fmars.2019.00143</a>. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/10289%2F16618">10289/16618</a>.</li> <li>Pinet, Paul R. (2003). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C"><i>Invitation to Oceanography</i></a>. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7637-2136-7. Retrieved 13 January 2016.</li> <li>Stevens, Craig L.; O’Callaghan, Joanne M.; Chiswell, Stephen M.; Hadfield, Mark G. (2 January 2021). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00288330.2019.1588746">"Physical oceanography of New Zealand/Aotearoa shelf seas – a review"</a>. <i>New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research</i>. 55 (1): 6–45. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021NZJMF..55....6S">2021NZJMF..55....6S</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00288330.2019.1588746">10.1080/00288330.2019.1588746</a>.</li> <li>Tyson, R. V.; Pearson, T. H. (1991). "Modern and ancient continental shelf anoxia: an overview". <i>Geological Society, London, Special Publications</i>. 58 (1): 1–24. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991GSLSP..58....1T">1991GSLSP..58....1T</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1144%2FGSL.SP.1991.058.01.01">10.1144/GSL.SP.1991.058.01.01</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:140633845">140633845</a>.</li> <li><a href="http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/8_1_1958_continental_shelf.pdf">"<i>Treaty Series</i> – Convention on the Continental Shelf, 1958"</a> (PDF). <a href="/facts/United_Nations/fgXLnmgT">United Nations</a>. 29 April 1958. Retrieved 13 January 2016.</li> <li>Wellner, J.S.; Heroy, D.C.; Anderson, J.B. (April 2006). "The death mask of the antarctic ice sheet: Comparison of glacial geomorphic features across the continental shelf". <i>Geomorphology</i>. 75 (1–2): 157–171. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Geomo..75..157W">2006Geomo..75..157W</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geomorph.2005.05.015">10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.05.015</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050217014801/http://www.onr.navy.mil/Focus/ocean/regions/oceanfloor2.htm">Office of Naval Research: Ocean Regions: Continental Margin & Rise</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.continentalshelf.org/">UNEP Shelf Programme</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.gebco.net/data_and_products/printable_maps/documents/gebco_world_map_2014.pdf">GEBCO world map 2014</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720071445/http://www.iilj.org/publications/documents/CavnarESP15-09.pdf">Anna Cavnar, <i>Accountability and the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf: Deciding Who Owns the Ocean Floor</i></a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Pinet 2003, p. 39. - Pinet, Paul R. (2003). Invitation to Oceanography. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-2136-7. Retrieved 13 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Gross 1972, p. 45. - Gross, M. Grant (1972). Oceanography: A View of the Earth. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-629659-1. Retrieved 12 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Encyclopædia Britannica. - "shelf break – geology". Encyclopædia Britannica. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/539632/shelf-break" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/539632/shelf-break</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Jackson 1997, "Continental slope". - Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). Glossary of geology (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. ISBN 0922152349. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Jackson 1997, "Continental rise". - Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). Glossary of geology (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. ISBN 0922152349. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Jackson 1997, "Continental margin". - Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). Glossary of geology (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. ISBN 0922152349. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Atkinson et al. 1983. - Atkinson, Larry P.; Lee, Thomas N.; Blanton, Jackson O.; Chandler, William S. (30 May 1983). "Climatology of the southeastern United States continental shelf waters". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 88 (C8): 4705–4718. Bibcode:1983JGR....88.4705A. doi:10.1029/JC088iC08p04705. <a href="https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1174&context=ccpo_pubs" target="_blank">https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1174&context=ccpo_pubs</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Wellner, Heroy & Anderson 2006. - Wellner, J.S.; Heroy, D.C.; Anderson, J.B. (April 2006). "The death mask of the antarctic ice sheet: Comparison of glacial geomorphic features across the continental shelf". Geomorphology. 75 (1–2): 157–171. Bibcode:2006Geomo..75..157W. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2005.05.015. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Geomo..75..157W" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Geomo..75..157W</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Figueiredo et al. 2016. - Figueiredo, Alberto Garcia; Pacheco, Carlos Eduardo Pereira; de Vasconcelos, Sérgio Cadena; da Silva, Fabiano Tavares (2016). "Continental Shelf Geomorphology and Sedimentology". Geology and Geomorphology: 13–31. doi:10.1016/B978-85-352-8444-7.50009-3. ISBN 9788535284447. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-85-352-8444-7.50009-3" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-85-352-8444-7.50009-3</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Muelbert et al. 2008. - Muelbert, José H.; Acha, Marcelo; Mianzan, Hermes; Guerrero, Raúl; Reta, Raúl; Braga, Elisabete S.; Garcia, Virginia M.T.; Berasategui, Alejandro; Gomez-Erache, Mónica; Ramírez, Fernando (July 2008). "Biological, physical and chemical properties at the Subtropical Shelf Front Zone in the SW Atlantic Continental Shelf". Continental Shelf Research. 28 (13): 1662–1673. Bibcode:2008CSR....28.1662M. doi:10.1016/j.csr.2007.08.011. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008CSR....28.1662M" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008CSR....28.1662M</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Gross 1972, p. 43. - Gross, M. Grant (1972). Oceanography: A View of the Earth. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-629659-1. Retrieved 12 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Pinet 2003, p. 36. - Pinet, Paul R. (2003). Invitation to Oceanography. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-2136-7. Retrieved 13 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Gross 1972, p. 43. - Gross, M. Grant (1972). Oceanography: A View of the Earth. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-629659-1. Retrieved 12 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Pinet 2003, p. 98. - Pinet, Paul R. (2003). Invitation to Oceanography. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-2136-7. Retrieved 13 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Gross 1972, p. 44. - Gross, M. Grant (1972). Oceanography: A View of the Earth. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-629659-1. Retrieved 12 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Continental shelf – Blue Habitats <a href="https://www.bluehabitats.org/?page_id=1660" target="_blank">https://www.bluehabitats.org/?page_id=1660</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Pinet 2003, p. 37. - Pinet, Paul R. (2003). Invitation to Oceanography. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-2136-7. Retrieved 13 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Pinet 2003, pp. 36–37. - Pinet, Paul R. (2003). Invitation to Oceanography. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-2136-7. Retrieved 13 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Pinet 2003, pp. 35–36. - Pinet, Paul R. (2003). Invitation to Oceanography. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-2136-7. Retrieved 13 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Pinet 2003, pp. 90–93. - Pinet, Paul R. (2003). Invitation to Oceanography. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-2136-7. Retrieved 13 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Harris et al. 2014. - Harris, P.T.; Macmillan-Lawler, M.; Rupp, J.; Baker, E.K. (June 2014). "Geomorphology of the oceans". Marine Geology. 352: 4–24. Bibcode:2014MGeol.352....4H. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2014.01.011. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MGeol.352....4H" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MGeol.352....4H</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Pinet 2003, pp. 84–85. - Pinet, Paul R. (2003). Invitation to Oceanography. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-2136-7. Retrieved 13 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Gross 1972, p. 43. - Gross, M. Grant (1972). Oceanography: A View of the Earth. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-629659-1. Retrieved 12 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Gross 1972, pp. 121–122. - Gross, M. Grant (1972). Oceanography: A View of the Earth. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-629659-1. Retrieved 12 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Gross 1972, p. 127. - Gross, M. Grant (1972). Oceanography: A View of the Earth. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-629659-1. Retrieved 12 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fE1Y4XoWs2IC</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Harris et al. 2014. - Harris, P.T.; Macmillan-Lawler, M.; Rupp, J.; Baker, E.K. (June 2014). "Geomorphology of the oceans". Marine Geology. 352: 4–24. Bibcode:2014MGeol.352....4H. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2014.01.011. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MGeol.352....4H" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014MGeol.352....4H</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>de Haas, van Weering & de Stigter 2002. - de Haas, Henk; van Weering, Tjeerd C.E; de Stigter, Henko (March 2002). "Organic carbon in shelf seas: sinks or sources, processes and products". Continental Shelf Research. 22 (5): 691–717. Bibcode:2002CSR....22..691D. doi:10.1016/S0278-4343(01)00093-0. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002CSR....22..691D" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002CSR....22..691D</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Simpson, John H.; Sharples, Jonathan (2012). Introduction to the Physical and Biological Oceanography of Shelf Seas. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139034098. ISBN 9780521877626. <a href="9780521877626" target="_blank">9780521877626</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Rippeth, Tom P. (2005). "Mixing in seasonally stratified shelf seas: A shifting paradigm". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 363 (1837): 2837–2854. Bibcode:2005RSPTA.363.2837R. doi:10.1098/rsta.2005.1662. PMID 16286293. S2CID 45053190. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2005.1662" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2005.1662</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Simpson, John H.; Sharples, Jonathan (2012). Introduction to the Physical and Biological Oceanography of Shelf Seas. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139034098. ISBN 9780521877626. <a href="9780521877626" target="_blank">9780521877626</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Verspecht, F.; Rippeth, T. P.; Howarth, M. J.; Souza, A. J.; Simpson, J. H.; Burchard, H. (2009). "Processes impacting on stratification in a region of freshwater influence: Application to Liverpool Bay". Journal of Geophysical Research. 114 (C11). Bibcode:2009JGRC..11411022V. doi:10.1029/2009jc005475. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2009jc005475" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1029/2009jc005475</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Guihou et al. 2018. - Guihou, K.; Polton, J.; Harle, J.; Wakelin, S.; O'Dea, E.; Holt, J. (January 2018). "Kilometric Scale Modeling of the North West European Shelf Seas: Exploring the Spatial and Temporal Variability of Internal Tides: Modeling of the Atlantic European Shelf". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 123 (1): 688–707. doi:10.1002/2017JC012960. hdl:11336/100068. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F2017JC012960" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1002%2F2017JC012960</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Han & McCreary 2001. - Han, Weiqing; McCreary, Julian P. (15 January 2001). "Modeling salinity distributions in the Indian Ocean". Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 106 (C1): 859–877. Bibcode:2001JGR...106..859H. doi:10.1029/2000JC000316. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2000JC000316" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2000JC000316</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Stevens et al. 2021. - Stevens, Craig L.; O’Callaghan, Joanne M.; Chiswell, Stephen M.; Hadfield, Mark G. (2 January 2021). "Physical oceanography of New Zealand/Aotearoa shelf seas – a review". New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 55 (1): 6–45. Bibcode:2021NZJMF..55....6S. doi:10.1080/00288330.2019.1588746. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00288330.2019.1588746" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00288330.2019.1588746</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Morley, Barnes & Dunn 2019. - Morley, Simon A.; Barnes, David K. A.; Dunn, Michael J. (17 January 2019). "Predicting Which Species Succeed in Climate-Forced Polar Seas". Frontiers in Marine Science. 5: 507. Bibcode:2019FrMaS...5..507M. doi:10.3389/fmars.2018.00507. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2018.00507" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2018.00507</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Montero-Serra, Edwards & Genner 2015. - Montero-Serra, Ignasi; Edwards, Martin; Genner, Martin J. (January 2015). "Warming shelf seas drive the subtropicalization of European pelagic fish communities". Global Change Biology. 21 (1): 144–153. Bibcode:2015GCBio..21..144M. doi:10.1111/gcb.12747. PMID 25230844. S2CID 25834528. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015GCBio..21..144M" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015GCBio..21..144M</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>O’Callaghan et al. 2019. - O’Callaghan, Joanne; Stevens, Craig; Roughan, Moninya; Cornelisen, Chris; Sutton, Philip; Garrett, Sally; Giorli, Giacomo; Smith, Robert O.; Currie, Kim I.; Suanda, Sutara H.; Williams, Michael; Bowen, Melissa; Fernandez, Denise; Vennell, Ross; Knight, Benjamin R.; Barter, Paul; McComb, Peter; Oliver, Megan; Livingston, Mary; Tellier, Pierre; Meissner, Anna; Brewer, Mike; Gall, Mark; Nodder, Scott D.; Decima, Moira; Souza, Joao; Forcén-Vazquez, Aitana; Gardiner, Sarah; Paul-Burke, Kura; Chiswell, Stephen; Roberts, Jim; Hayden, Barb; Biggs, Barry; Macdonald, Helen (26 March 2019). "Developing an Integrated Ocean Observing System for New Zealand". Frontiers in Marine Science. 6: 143. Bibcode:2019FrMaS...6..143O. doi:10.3389/fmars.2019.00143. hdl:10289/16618. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2019.00143" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmars.2019.00143</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Pinet 2003, pp. 316–317, 418–419. - Pinet, Paul R. (2003). Invitation to Oceanography. Boston: Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-2136-7. Retrieved 13 January 2016. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXMJJQblg0C</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Gattuso et al. 2006. - Gattuso, Jean-Pierre; Gentili, B.; Duarte, C. M.; Kleypas, J. A.; Middelburg, J. J.; Antoine, D. (2006). "Light availability in the coastal ocean: impact on the distribution of benthic photosynthetic organisms and their contribution to primary production". Biogeosciences. 3 (4). European Geosciences Union: 489–513. Bibcode:2006BGeo....3..489G. doi:10.5194/bg-3-489-2006. hdl:20.500.11937/23744. S2CID 13715554. hal-00330315. Retrieved 1 July 2021. <a href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00330315/document" target="_blank">https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00330315/document</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Tyson & Pearson 1991. - Tyson, R. V.; Pearson, T. H. (1991). "Modern and ancient continental shelf anoxia: an overview". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 58 (1): 1–24. Bibcode:1991GSLSP..58....1T. doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1991.058.01.01. S2CID 140633845. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991GSLSP..58....1T" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991GSLSP..58....1T</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Ferriday, Tim; Montenari, Michael (2016). "Chemostratigraphy and Chemofacies of Source Rock Analogues: A High-Resolution Analysis of Black Shale Successions from the Lower Silurian Formigoso Formation (Cantabrian Mountains, NW Spain)". Stratigraphy & Timescales. 1: 123–255. doi:10.1016/bs.sats.2016.10.004 – via Elsevier Science Direct. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2468517816300053" target="_blank">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2468517816300053</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>United Nations 1958, 499:311. - "Treaty Series – Convention on the Continental Shelf, 1958" (PDF). United Nations. 29 April 1958. Retrieved 13 January 2016. <a href="http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/8_1_1958_continental_shelf.pdf" target="_blank">http://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/8_1_1958_continental_shelf.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>