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Circumplanetary disk
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<h2 id="theory">Theory</h2> <p>A <a href="/facts/Giant_planet/PjSfFuUF">giant planet</a> will mainly form via <a href="/facts/Core-accretion_theory/IT3D6MpE">core accretion</a>. In this scenario a core forms via the accretion of small solids. Once the core is massive enough it might carve a gap onto the <a href="/facts/Circumstellar_disc/aEr3EdJF">circumstellar disk</a> around the host <a href="/facts/Star/PFbd6ICx">star</a>. Material will flow from the edges of the circumstellar disk towards the planet in streams and around the planet it will form a circumplanetary disk. A circumplanetary disk does therefore form during the late stage of giant planet formation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> The size of the disk is limited by the <a href="/facts/Hill_sphere/wutNvPyw">Hill radius</a>. A circumplanetary disk will have a maximal disk size of 0.4 times the Hill radius.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> The disk also has a "dead zone" at the mid-plane that is non-turbulent and a turbulent disk surface. The dead zone is a favourable region for satellites (exomoons) to form.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> The circumplanetary disk will go through different stages of evolution. A classification similar to <a href="/facts/Young_stellar_object/Pa6wuNkp">young stellar objects</a> was proposed. In the early stage the circumplanetary disk will be full. Newly forming satellites will carve a gap close to the planet, turning the disk into a "transitional" disk. In the last stage the disk is full, but has a low density and can be classified as "evolved".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Additional to a circumplanetary disk, a <a href="/facts/Protoplanet/syFmx3ku">protoplanet</a> can also drive an outflow.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> One such outflow is identified via shocked <a href="/facts/Silicon_monosulfide/srnj4400">SiS</a> for <a href="/facts/HD_169142/yMbaX9Ue">HD 169142b</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>Circumplanetary disks are consistent with the formation of the <a href="/facts/Galilean_moons/aN6tLUFc">Galilean satellites</a>. The older models at the time were not consistent with the icy composition of the moons and the incomplete differentiation of <a href="/facts/Callisto_(moon)/et0eIutu">Callisto</a>. A circumplanetary disk with an inflow of 2*10−7 MJ/year of gas and solids was consistent with the conditions needed to form the moons, including the low temperature during the late stage of the formation of <a href="/facts/Jupiter/95m7XjMT">Jupiter</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> But later simulations found the circumplanetary disk too hot for the satellites to form and survive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> This was later solved by introducing the dead zone within circumplanetary disks which is a favourable region for satellite formation and explains the compact orbit of Galilean satellites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="candidates-around-other-exoplanets">Candidates around other exoplanets</h2> <p>Possible circumplanetary disks have also been detected around exoplanets, <a href="/facts/HD_100546_b/vsX29DMo">HD 100546 b</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> AS 209 b<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/HD_169142/yMbaX9Ue">HD 169142 b</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> or planetary-mass companions (PMC; 10-20 MJ, separation ≥100 AU), such as GSC 06214-00210 b<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/DH_Tauri_b/m3RBQ6Sv">DH Tauri b</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p><p>A disk was detected in sub-mm with ALMA around <a href="/facts/SR_12_(star)/rtPBGdK3">SR 12 c</a>, a planetary-mass companion. SR 12 c might not have formed from the circumstellar disk material of the host star SR 12, so it might not be considered a true circumplanetary disk. PMC disks are relative common around young objects and are easier to study when compared to circumplanetary disks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> The protoplanet <a href="/facts/Delorme_1/L2vUmon5">Delorme 1</a> (AB)b shows strong evidence of accretion from a circumplanetary disk, but the disk is as of now (September 2024) not detected in the infrared.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>Several disks were detected around nearby <a href="/facts/Rogue_planet/3t9nlDVa">isolated planetary-mass objects</a>. Disks around such objects within 300 parsecs were found in <a href="/facts/Rho_Ophiuchi_cloud_complex/YnwyupVW">Rho Ophiuchi Complex</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Taurus_molecular_cloud/sSwwA47g">Taurus Complex</a> (e.g. <a href="/facts/KPNO-Tau_12/KCkB5svP">KPNO-Tau 12</a>),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> Lupus I Cloud<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> and the <a href="/facts/Chamaeleon_complex/B3rB8GF2">Chamaeleon Complex</a> (e.g. the well studied <a href="/facts/OTS_44/GjgwH57R">OTS 44</a> and <a href="/facts/Cha_110913%E2%88%92773444/6aVB5c8w">Cha 110913−773444</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a>). One remarkable close free-floating disk-bearing object is <a href="/facts/2MASS_J11151597%2B1937266/hXrxMjbU">2MASS J11151597+1937266</a>, which is only 45 parsec distant. It could be a planetary-mass object or a low-mass brown dwarf.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> These objects with disks are free-floating and are most of the time called circumstellar disks, despite likely being similar to circumplanetary disks. </p><p><a href="/facts/2M1207b/yRkY1xz0">2M1207b</a> was suspected to have a circumplanetary disk in the past.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> New observations from <a href="/facts/James_Webb_Space_Telescope/w4GAWnWX">JWST</a>/<a href="/facts/NIRSpec/5HXxJ4T1">NIRSpec</a> were able to confirm accretion from an unseen disk by detecting emission from hydrogen and helium. The classification of a circumplanetary disk is however being disputed because 2M1207b (or 2M1207B) might be classified as a binary together with 2M1207A and not an exoplanet. This would make the disk around 2M1207b a <a href="/facts/Circumstellar_disc/aEr3EdJF">circumstellar disk</a>, despite not being around a star, but around a 5-6 <a href="/facts/Jupiter_mass/EtLUmeEN">MJup</a> <a href="/facts/Planetary-mass_object/rbPjE6Bx">planetary-mass object</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p> <h3>PDS 70</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/PDS_70/1AhrXflI">PDS 70</a></p> <p>The disk around the planet c of the PDS 70 system is the best evidence for a circumplanetary disk at the time of its discovery. The exoplanet is part of the multiplanetary PDS 70 star system, about 370 light-years (110 parsecs) from Earth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p> <h4>PDS 70b</h4> <p>In June 2019 astronomers reported the detection of evidence of a circumplanetary disk around <a href="/facts/PDS_70b/1AhrXflI">PDS 70b</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> using spectroscopy and accretion signatures. Both types of these signatures had previously been detected for other planetary candidates. A later infrared characterization could not confirm the spectroscopic evidence for the disk around PDS 70b and reports weak evidence that the current data favors a model with a single blackbody component.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> Interferometric observations with JWST <a href="/facts/Fine_Guidance_Sensor_and_Near_Infrared_Imager_and_Slitless_Spectrograph/H4KRrbsx">NIRISS</a> and archived data found that PDS 70b has a circumplanetary disk.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p> <h4>PDS 70c</h4> <p>In July 2019 astronomers reported the first-ever detection using the <a href="/facts/Atacama_Large_Millimeter/submillimeter_Array/1hLdJxsw">Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array</a> (ALMA)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> of a circumplanetary disk.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> ALMA studies, using <a href="/facts/Extremely_high_frequency/l28Grdmp">millimetre</a> and <a href="/facts/Submillimetre_astronomy/BAydzm8W">submillimetre</a> wavelengths, are better at observing <a href="/facts/Interplanetary_dust_cloud/vJKKPHp9">dust</a> concentrated in interplanetary regions, since stars emit comparatively little light at these wavelengths, and since <a href="/facts/Visible-light_astronomy/bbfzMHAn">optical observations</a> are often obscured by overwhelming glare from the bright host star. The circumplanetary disk was detected around a young massive, <a href="/facts/Jupiter/95m7XjMT">Jupiter</a>-like <a href="/facts/Exoplanet/zjfmqfUf">exoplanet</a>, <a href="/facts/PDS_70c/1AhrXflI">PDS 70c</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> </p><p>According to Andrea Isella, lead researcher from the <a href="/facts/Rice_University/YvEYoWMn">Rice University</a> in <a href="/facts/Houston,_Texas/1v8AwQUN">Houston, Texas</a>, "For the first time, we can conclusively see the tell-tale signs of a circumplanetary disk, which helps to support many of the current theories of <a href="/facts/Planet_formation/IT3D6MpE">planet formation</a> ... By comparing our observations to the <a href="/facts/Infrared_astronomy/WEmAadyf">high-resolution infrared</a> and <a href="/facts/Visible-light_astronomy/bbfzMHAn">optical</a> images, we can clearly see that an otherwise enigmatic concentration of <a href="/facts/Interplanetary_dust_cloud/vJKKPHp9">tiny dust particles</a> is actually a planet-girding disk of dust, the first such feature ever conclusively observed."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> Jason Wang from Caltech, lead researcher of another publication, describes, "if a planet appears to sit on top of the disk, which is the case with PDS 70c"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> then the signal around <a href="/facts/PDS_70/1AhrXflI">PDS 70c</a> needs to be spatially separated from the outer ring, not the case in 2019. However, in July 2021 higher resolution, conclusively resolved data were presented.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> </p><p>The planet PDS 70c is detected in <a href="/facts/Hydrogen-alpha/Akk50rbI">H-alpha</a>, which is seen as evidence that it accretes material from the circumplanetary disk at a rate of 10−8±0.4 <a href="/facts/Jupiter_mass/EtLUmeEN">MJ</a> per year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> From ALMA observations it was shown that this disk has a radius smaller than 1.2 <a href="/facts/Astronomical_unit/gjsbu5xU">astronomical units</a> (AU) or a third of the <a href="/facts/Hill_sphere/wutNvPyw">Hill radius</a>. The dust mass was estimated around 0.007 or 0.031 <a href="/facts/Earth_mass/G74DaKFv">ME</a> (0.57 to 2.5 <a href="/facts/Moon/zKHqEMPb">Moon</a> masses), depending on the grain size used for the modelling.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> Later modelling showed that the disk around PDS 70c is optically thick and has an estimated dust mass of 0.07 to 0.7 ME (5.7 to 57 Moon masses). The total (dust+gas) mass of the disk should be higher. The planet's luminosity is the dominant heating mechanism within 0.6 AU of the CPD. Beyond that the <a href="/facts/Photon/mFNhAEzA">photons</a> from the star heat the disk.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> Observations with JWST <a href="/facts/NIRCam/IEICTMnf">NIRCam</a> showed a large spiral-like feature near PDS 70c. This feature is only seen after the disk around PDS 70 was removed. Part of this spiral-like feature was interpreted as an accretion stream that feeds the circumplanetary disk around PDS 70c.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Accretion_disc/8zJXshat">Accretion disc</a> – Structure formed by diffuse material in orbital motion around a massive central bodyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/facts/Circumstellar_envelope/8YvSMX5l">Circumstellar envelope</a> – Part of a star</li> <li><a href="/facts/Disrupted_planet/qKCyt2KB">Disrupted planet</a> – Planet or related being destroyed by a passing object</li> <li><a href="/facts/Extrasolar_planet/zjfmqfUf">Extrasolar planet</a> – Planet outside the Solar SystemPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/facts/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System/cgElXHpM">Formation and evolution of the Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Protoplanetary_disk/FtfSbP61">Protoplanetary disk</a> – Gas and dust surrounding a newly formed star</li> <li><a href="/facts/Ring_system/KNCgIIX7">Ring system</a> – Ring of cosmic dust orbiting an astronomical object</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://astro.berkeley.edu/~kalas/disksite/pages/gallery.html">Image Gallery of Circumstellar Dust disks</a> (<a href="/facts/Paul_Kalas/0E2bs428">Paul Kalas</a>; "<a href="http://astro.berkeley.edu/~kalas/disksite/index.html">Learning Site</a>)"</li> <li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZmUCm1O1vuY">Video (1:20) − Moon-forming Circumplanetary disc</a> on <a href="/facts/YouTube_video_(identifier)/db276jst">YouTube</a> (<a href="/facts/European_Southern_Observatory/mJtjDbwx">ESO</a>; July 2021)</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Parks, Jake (8 November 2021). "Snapshot: ALMA spots moon-forming disk around distant exoplanet - This stellar shot serves as the first unambiguous detection of a circumplanetary disk capable of brewing its own moon". Astronomy. Retrieved 9 November 2021. <a href="https://astronomy.com/magazine/news/2021/11/snapshot-alma-spots-moon-forming-disk-around-distant-exoplanet" target="_blank">https://astronomy.com/magazine/news/2021/11/snapshot-alma-spots-moon-forming-disk-around-distant-exoplanet</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Ginski, Christian (August 2018). "First direct detection of a polarized companion outside a resolved circumbinary disk around CS Chamaeleonis". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 616 (79): 18. arXiv:1805.02261. Bibcode:2018A&A...616A..79G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201732417. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201732417" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201732417</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Starr, Michelle. "Astronomers Have Accidentally Taken a Direct Photo of a Possible Baby Exoplanet". Retrieved 10 October 2019. <a href="https://www.sciencealert.com/astronomers-have-accidentally-taken-a-direct-photograph-of-a-possible-baby-exoplanet" target="_blank">https://www.sciencealert.com/astronomers-have-accidentally-taken-a-direct-photograph-of-a-possible-baby-exoplanet</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Haffert, S. Y.; Van Holstein, R. G.; Ginski, C.; Brinchmann, J.; Snellen, I. A. G.; Milli, J.; Stolker, T.; Keller, C. U.; Girard, J. (2020), "CS Cha B: A disc-obscured M-type star mimicking a polarised planetary companion", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 640: L12, arXiv:2007.07831, Bibcode:2020A&A...640L..12H, doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038706, S2CID 220525346 <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>D'Angelo, G.; Lissauer, J. J. (2018). "Formation of Giant Planets". In Deeg H., Belmonte J. (ed.). Handbook of Exoplanets. Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature. pp. 2319–2343. arXiv:1806.05649. Bibcode:2018haex.bookE.140D. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_140. ISBN 978-3-319-55332-0. S2CID 116913980. <a href="978-3-319-55332-0" target="_blank">978-3-319-55332-0</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Lubow, S. H.; Seibert, M.; Artymowicz, P. (1 December 1999). "Disk Accretion onto High-Mass Planets". The Astrophysical Journal. 526 (2): 1001–1012. arXiv:astro-ph/9910404. Bibcode:1999ApJ...526.1001L. doi:10.1086/308045. ISSN 0004-637X. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999ApJ...526.1001L/abstract" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999ApJ...526.1001L/abstract</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Martin, R. G.; Lubow, S. H. (1 October 2011). "The Gravo-magneto Limit Cycle in Accretion Disks". The Astrophysical Journal. 740 (1): L6. arXiv:1108.4960. Bibcode:2011ApJ...740L...6M. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/740/1/L6. ISSN 0004-637X. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ApJ...740L...6M/abstract" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ApJ...740L...6M/abstract</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Chen, Cheng; Yang, Chao-Chin; Martin, Rebecca G.; Zhu, Zhaohuan (1 January 2021). "The evolution of a circumplanetary disc with a dead zone". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 500 (3): 2822–2830. arXiv:2011.01384. Bibcode:2021MNRAS.500.2822C. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3427. ISSN 0035-8711. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstaa3427" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstaa3427</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Lubow, Stephen H.; Martin, Rebecca G. (1 January 2013). "Dead zones in circumplanetary discs as formation sites for regular satellites". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 428 (3): 2668–2673. arXiv:1210.4579. Bibcode:2013MNRAS.428.2668L. doi:10.1093/mnras/sts229. ISSN 0035-8711. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fsts229" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fsts229</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Sun, Xilei; Huang, Pinghui; Dong, Ruobing; Liu, Shang-Fei (1 September 2024). "Observational Characteristics of Circumplanetary-mass-object Disks in the Era of James Webb Space Telescope". The Astrophysical Journal. 972 (1): 25. arXiv:2406.09501. Bibcode:2024ApJ...972...25S. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad57c2. ISSN 0004-637X. <a href="https://doi.org/10.3847%2F1538-4357%2Fad57c2" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.3847%2F1538-4357%2Fad57c2</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Quillen, A. C.; Trilling, D. E. (1 December 1998). "Do Proto-jovian Planets Drive Outflows?". The Astrophysical Journal. 508 (2): 707–713. arXiv:astro-ph/9712033. Bibcode:1998ApJ...508..707Q. doi:10.1086/306421. ISSN 0004-637X. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ApJ...508..707Q/abstract" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ApJ...508..707Q/abstract</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Fendt, Ch. (1 December 2003). "Magnetically driven outflows from Jovian circum-planetary accretion disks". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 411 (3): 623–635. arXiv:astro-ph/0310021. Bibcode:2003A&A...411..623F. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20034154. ISSN 0004-6361. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003A&A...411..623F/abstract" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003A&A...411..623F/abstract</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Law, Charles J.; Booth, Alice S.; Öberg, Karin I. (1 June 2023). "SO and SiS Emission Tracing an Embedded Planet and Compact 12CO and 13CO Counterparts in the HD 169142 Disk". Astrophysical Journal Letters. 952 (1): L19. arXiv:2306.13710. 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