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SNAI2
open-in-new
<h2 id="function">Function</h2> <p>This gene encodes a member of the Snail superfamily of C2H2-type <a href="/facts/Zinc_finger/dWrlw4t7">zinc finger</a> <a href="/facts/Transcription_factor/wro0DPHe">transcription factors</a>. The encoded protein acts as a <a href="/facts/Transcription_(genetics)/bDgp9HDN">transcriptional</a> repressor that binds to <a href="/facts/E-box/Kme7EgfY">E-box</a> motifs and is also likely to repress <a href="/facts/E-cadherin/u3MPHtKl">E-cadherin</a> transcription in breast carcinoma. This protein is involved in <a href="/facts/Epithelial-mesenchymal_transition/7fTxEBlb">epithelial-mesenchymal transitions</a> and has <a href="/facts/Apoptosis/8dVzSm4y">antiapoptotic</a> activity. It regulates differentiation and migration of <a href="/facts/Neural_crest/SgvAz0Ww">neural crest</a> cells along with other genes (e.g. <a href="/facts/FOXD3/s16ggEyR">FOXD3</a>, <a href="/facts/SOX9/XyHzWupX">SOX9</a> and <a href="/facts/SOX10/czJLN98d">SOX10</a>, <a href="/facts/Bone_morphogenetic_protein/VpwFr7Ih">BMPs</a>) in embryonic life. Mutations in this gene may be associated with sporadic cases of <a href="/facts/Neural_tube/xv4a9Il7">neural tube</a> <a href="/facts/Neural_tube_defects/3bK6SC0W">defects</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p><p>SNAI2 downregulates expression of E-cadherin in premigratory neural crest cells; thus, SNAI2 induces tightly bound epithelial cells to break into a loose mesenchymal phenotype, allowing gastrulation of <a href="/facts/Mesoderm/kf77vcNA">mesoderm</a> in the developing embryo.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> Structurally similar to anti-apoptotic <i>Ces-1</i> in <i>C. elegans</i>, SLUG is a negative regulator of productive cell death in the developing embryo and adults.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="clinical-significance">Clinical significance</h2> <p>Widely expressed in human tissues, SLUG is most notably absent in peripheral blood leukocytes, adult liver, and both fetal and adult brain tissues.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> SLUG plays a role in breast carcinoma as well as leukemia by downregulation of E-cadherin, which supports mesenchymal phenotype by shifting expression from a Type I to Type II cadherin profile.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> Maintenance of mesenchymal phenotype enables metastasis of tumor cells, though SLUG is expressed in carcinomas regardless to invasiveness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> A knockout model using chick embryos has also showed inhibition of mesodermal and neural crest delamination; chick embryo Slug gain of function appears to increase neural crest production.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Mutations in Slug are associated with loss of pregnancy during gastrulation in some animals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="interactions">Interactions</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Bone_morphogenetic_protein/VpwFr7Ih">Bone morphogenetic proteins</a> (BMPs) precede expression of SLUG and are suspected as the immediate upstream inducers of gene expression.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Maruyama K, Sugano S (January 1994). "Oligo-capping: a simple method to replace the cap structure of eukaryotic mRNAs with oligoribonucleotides". <i>Gene</i>. 138 (1–2): 171–4. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0378-1119%2894%2990802-8">10.1016/0378-1119(94)90802-8</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8125298">8125298</a>.</li> <li>Savagner P, Yamada KM, Thiery JP (June 1997). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2132541">"The zinc-finger protein slug causes desmosome dissociation, an initial and necessary step for growth factor-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition"</a>. <i>The Journal of Cell Biology</i>. 137 (6): 1403–19. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1083%2Fjcb.137.6.1403">10.1083/jcb.137.6.1403</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2132541">2132541</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9182671">9182671</a>.</li> <li>Suzuki Y, Yoshitomo-Nakagawa K, Maruyama K, Suyama A, Sugano S (October 1997). "Construction and characterization of a full length-enriched and a 5'-end-enriched cDNA library". <i>Gene</i>. 200 (1–2): 149–56. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0378-1119%2897%2900411-3">10.1016/S0378-1119(97)00411-3</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9373149">9373149</a>.</li> <li>Stegmann K, Boecker J, Kosan C, Ermert A, Kunz J, Koch MC (August 1999). "Human transcription factor SLUG: mutation analysis in patients with neural tube defects and identification of a missense mutation (D119E) in the Slug subfamily-defining region". <i>Mutation Research</i>. 406 (2–4): 63–9. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1383-5726%2899%2900002-3">10.1016/S1383-5726(99)00002-3</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10479723">10479723</a>.</li> <li>Inukai T, Inoue A, Kurosawa H, Goi K, Shinjyo T, Ozawa K, Mao M, Inaba T, Look AT (September 1999). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1097-2765%2800%2980336-6">"SLUG, a ces-1-related zinc finger transcription factor gene with antiapoptotic activity, is a downstream target of the E2A-HLF oncoprotein"</a>. <i>Molecular Cell</i>. 4 (3): 343–52. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1097-2765%2800%2980336-6">10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80336-6</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10518215">10518215</a>.</li> <li>Hemavathy K, Guru SC, Harris J, Chen JD, Ip YT (July 2000). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC85958">"Human Slug is a repressor that localizes to sites of active transcription"</a>. <i>Molecular and Cellular Biology</i>. 20 (14): 5087–95. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMCB.20.14.5087-5095.2000">10.1128/MCB.20.14.5087-5095.2000</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC85958">85958</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10866665">10866665</a>.</li> <li>Hajra KM, Chen DY, Fearon ER (March 2002). "The SLUG zinc-finger protein represses E-cadherin in breast cancer". <i>Cancer Research</i>. 62 (6): 1613–8. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11912130">11912130</a>.</li> <li>Sánchez-Martín M, Rodríguez-García A, Pérez-Losada J, Sagrera A, Read AP, Sánchez-García I (December 2002). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhmg%2F11.25.3231">"SLUG (SNAI2) deletions in patients with Waardenburg disease"</a>. <i>Human Molecular Genetics</i>. 11 (25): 3231–6. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhmg%2F11.25.3231">10.1093/hmg/11.25.3231</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12444107">12444107</a>.</li> <li>Kajita M, McClinic KN, Wade PA (September 2004). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC506998">"Aberrant expression of the transcription factors snail and slug alters the response to genotoxic stress"</a>. <i>Molecular and Cellular Biology</i>. 24 (17): 7559–66. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMCB.24.17.7559-7566.2004">10.1128/MCB.24.17.7559-7566.2004</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC506998">506998</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15314165">15314165</a>.</li> <li>Catalano A, Rodilossi S, Rippo MR, Caprari P, Procopio A (November 2004). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M406696200">"Induction of stem cell factor/c-Kit/slug signal transduction in multidrug-resistant malignant mesothelioma cells"</a>. <i>The Journal of Biological Chemistry</i>. 279 (45): 46706–14. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M406696200">10.1074/jbc.M406696200</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15337769">15337769</a>.</li> <li>Uchikado Y, Natsugoe S, Okumura H, Setoyama T, Matsumoto M, Ishigami S, Aikou T (February 2005). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1158%2F1078-0432.1174.11.3">"Slug Expression in the E-cadherin preserved tumors is related to prognosis in patients with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma"</a>. <i>Clinical Cancer Research</i>. 11 (3): 1174–80. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1158%2F1078-0432.1174.11.3">10.1158/1078-0432.1174.11.3</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15709186">15709186</a>.</li> <li>Tripathi MK, Misra S, Khedkar SV, Hamilton N, Irvin-Wilson C, Sharan C, Sealy L, Chaudhuri G (April 2005). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3092429">"Regulation of BRCA2 gene expression by the SLUG repressor protein in human breast cells"</a>. <i>The Journal of Biological Chemistry</i>. 280 (17): 17163–71. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M501375200">10.1074/jbc.M501375200</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3092429">3092429</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15734731">15734731</a>.</li> <li>Tripathi MK, Misra S, Chaudhuri G (April 2005). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3086003">"Negative regulation of the expressions of cytokeratins 8 and 19 by SLUG repressor protein in human breast cells"</a>. <i>Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications</i>. 329 (2): 508–15. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbrc.2005.02.006">10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.02.006</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3086003">3086003</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15737616">15737616</a>.</li> <li>Moody SE, Perez D, Pan TC, Sarkisian CJ, Portocarrero CP, Sterner CJ, Notorfrancesco KL, Cardiff RD, Chodosh LA (September 2005). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ccr.2005.07.009">"The transcriptional repressor Snail promotes mammary tumor recurrence"</a>. <i>Cancer Cell</i>. 8 (3): 197–209. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ccr.2005.07.009">10.1016/j.ccr.2005.07.009</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16169465">16169465</a>.</li> <li>Chen M, Chen LM, Chai KX (June 2006). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpros.20325">"Androgen regulation of prostasin gene expression is mediated by sterol-regulatory element-binding proteins and SLUG"</a>. <i>The Prostate</i>. 66 (9): 911–20. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpros.20325">10.1002/pros.20325</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16541421">16541421</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23036264">23036264</a>.</li> <li>Turner FE, Broad S, Khanim FL, Jeanes A, Talma S, Hughes S, Tselepis C, Hotchin NA (July 2006). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M509731200">"Slug regulates integrin expression and cell proliferation in human epidermal keratinocytes"</a>. <i>The Journal of Biological Chemistry</i>. 281 (30): 21321–31. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1074%2Fjbc.M509731200">10.1074/jbc.M509731200</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16707493">16707493</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Rhim H, Savagner P, Thibaudeau G, Thiery JP, Pavan WJ (Jan 1998). "Localization of a neural crest transcription factor, Slug, to mouse chromosome 16 and human chromosome 8". Mammalian Genome. 8 (11): 872–3. doi:10.1007/s003359900601. PMID 9337409. S2CID 2177885. <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1232685" target="_blank">https://zenodo.org/record/1232685</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Cohen ME, Yin M, Paznekas WA, Schertzer M, Wood S, Jabs EW (August 1998). "Human SLUG gene organization, expression, and chromosome map location on 8q". Genomics. 51 (3): 468–71. doi:10.1006/geno.1998.5367. PMID 9721220. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fgeno.1998.5367" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fgeno.1998.5367</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Entrez Gene: SNAI2 snail homolog 2 (Drosophila)". <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=6591" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=6591</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Entrez Gene: SNAI2 snail homolog 2 (Drosophila)". <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=6591" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=gene&Cmd=ShowDetailView&TermToSearch=6591</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Stegmann, K.; Boecker, J.; Kosan, C.; Ermert, A.; Kunz, J.; Koch, M. C. (August 1999). "Human transcription factor SLUG: mutation analysis in patients with neural tube defects and identification of a missense mutation (D119E) in the Slug subfamily-defining region". Mutation Research. 406 (2–4): 63–69. doi:10.1016/s1383-5726(99)00002-3. ISSN 0027-5107. PMID 10479723. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Nieto MA (March 2002). "The snail superfamily of zinc-finger transcription factors". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 3 (3): 155–66. doi:10.1038/nrm757. PMID 11994736. S2CID 8330951. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Carlson BM (2013). Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 101–102, 106, 313, 362, 382. ISBN 978-1-4557-2794-0. <a href="978-1-4557-2794-0" target="_blank">978-1-4557-2794-0</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Nieto MA (March 2002). "The snail superfamily of zinc-finger transcription factors". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 3 (3): 155–66. doi:10.1038/nrm757. PMID 11994736. S2CID 8330951. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Inukai T, Inoue A, Kurosawa H, Goi K, Shinjyo T, Ozawa K, Mao M, Inaba T, Look AT (September 1999). "SLUG, a ces-1-related zinc finger transcription factor gene with antiapoptotic activity, is a downstream target of the E2A-HLF oncoprotein". Molecular Cell. 4 (3): 343–52. doi:10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80336-6. PMID 10518215. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1097-2765%2800%2980336-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1097-2765%2800%2980336-6</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Inukai T, Inoue A, Kurosawa H, Goi K, Shinjyo T, Ozawa K, Mao M, Inaba T, Look AT (September 1999). "SLUG, a ces-1-related zinc finger transcription factor gene with antiapoptotic activity, is a downstream target of the E2A-HLF oncoprotein". Molecular Cell. 4 (3): 343–52. doi:10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80336-6. PMID 10518215. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1097-2765%2800%2980336-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1097-2765%2800%2980336-6</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Inukai T, Inoue A, Kurosawa H, Goi K, Shinjyo T, Ozawa K, Mao M, Inaba T, Look AT (September 1999). "SLUG, a ces-1-related zinc finger transcription factor gene with antiapoptotic activity, is a downstream target of the E2A-HLF oncoprotein". Molecular Cell. 4 (3): 343–52. doi:10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80336-6. PMID 10518215. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1097-2765%2800%2980336-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1097-2765%2800%2980336-6</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Kalluri R, Weinberg RA (June 2009). "The basics of epithelial-mesenchymal transition". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 119 (6): 1420–8. doi:10.1172/jci39104. PMC 2689101. PMID 19487818. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2689101" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2689101</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Nieto MA (March 2002). "The snail superfamily of zinc-finger transcription factors". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 3 (3): 155–66. doi:10.1038/nrm757. PMID 11994736. S2CID 8330951. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Carlson BM (2013). Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 101–102, 106, 313, 362, 382. ISBN 978-1-4557-2794-0. <a href="978-1-4557-2794-0" target="_blank">978-1-4557-2794-0</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Inukai T, Inoue A, Kurosawa H, Goi K, Shinjyo T, Ozawa K, Mao M, Inaba T, Look AT (September 1999). "SLUG, a ces-1-related zinc finger transcription factor gene with antiapoptotic activity, is a downstream target of the E2A-HLF oncoprotein". Molecular Cell. 4 (3): 343–52. doi:10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80336-6. PMID 10518215. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1097-2765%2800%2980336-6" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1097-2765%2800%2980336-6</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Nieto MA (March 2002). "The snail superfamily of zinc-finger transcription factors". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 3 (3): 155–66. doi:10.1038/nrm757. PMID 11994736. S2CID 8330951. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Nieto MA (March 2002). "The snail superfamily of zinc-finger transcription factors". Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 3 (3): 155–66. doi:10.1038/nrm757. PMID 11994736. S2CID 8330951. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Carlson BM (2013). Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (5th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 101–102, 106, 313, 362, 382. ISBN 978-1-4557-2794-0. <a href="978-1-4557-2794-0" target="_blank">978-1-4557-2794-0</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Sakai D, Wakamatsu Y (2005). "Regulatory mechanisms for neural crest formation". Cells Tissues Organs. 179 (1–2): 24–35. doi:10.1159/000084506. PMID 15942190. S2CID 1886380. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>