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Agrobacterium
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<h2 id="nomenclatural-history">Nomenclatural history</h2> <p>Leading up to the 1990s, the genus <i>Agrobacterium</i> was used as a <a href="/facts/Wastebasket_taxon/tSBLEgRv">wastebasket taxon</a>. With the advent of <a href="/facts/16S_ribosomal_RNA/XCgSahoy">16S sequencing</a>, many <i>Agrobacterium</i> species (especially the marine species) were reassigned to genera such as <i><a href="/facts/Ahrensia/u3Ic4Yfb">Ahrensia</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Pseudorhodobacter/qoKsxpYb">Pseudorhodobacter</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Ruegeria/0cPWqa8u">Ruegeria</a></i>, and <i><a href="/facts/Stappia/sKsp6TKl">Stappia</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> The remaining <i>Agrobacterium</i> species were assigned to three biovars: biovar 1 (<i><a href="/facts/Agrobacterium_tumefaciens/aN1LUWQY">Agrobacterium tumefaciens</a></i>), biovar 2 (<i>Agrobacterium rhizogenes</i>), and biovar 3 (<i>Agrobacterium vitis</i>). In the early 2000s, <i>Agrobacterium</i> was synonymized with the genus <i><a href="/facts/Rhizobium/sWumxgnX">Rhizobium</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> This move proved to be controversial.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> The debate was finally resolved when the genus <i>Agrobacterium</i> was reinstated<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> after it was demonstrated that it was <a href="/facts/Monophyly/pD8Yrrn6">phylogenetically distinct</a> from <i>Rhizobium</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> and that <i>Agrobacterium</i> species were unified by a unique <a href="/facts/Synapomorphy/t21GWRl1">synapomorphy</a>: the presence of the protelomerase gene, <i>telA</i>, which causes all members of the genus to have a linear <a href="/facts/Chromid/fc7Mgxr9">chromid</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> By this time, however, the three <i>Agrobacterium</i> biovars had become defunct; biovar 1 remained with <i>Agrobacterium</i>, biovar 2 was renamed <i><a href="/facts/Rhizobium_rhizogenes/c8xszpxm">Rhizobium rhizogenes</a></i>, and biovar 3 was renamed <i><a href="/facts/Allorhizobium_vitis/88AgodIk">Allorhizobium vitis</a></i>. </p> <h2 id="plant-pathogen">Plant pathogen</h2> <p><i><a href="/facts/Agrobacterium_tumefaciens/aN1LUWQY">Agrobacterium tumefaciens</a></i> causes crown-gall disease in plants. The disease is characterised by a <a href="/facts/Tumour/K0ytzmPz">tumour</a>-like growth or <a href="/facts/Gall/dd7TT4ke">gall</a> on the infected plant, often at the junction between the root and the shoot. Tumors are incited by the <a href="/facts/Bacterial_conjugation/WfeyKYC4">conjugative</a> transfer of a DNA segment (<a href="/facts/T-DNA/8kQjXNWf">T-DNA</a>) from the bacterial tumour-inducing (Ti) <a href="/facts/Plasmid/yf59JVlA">plasmid</a>. The closely related species, <i>Agrobacterium rhizogenes</i>, induces root tumors, and carries the distinct Ri (root-inducing) plasmid. Although the taxonomy of <i>Agrobacterium</i> is currently under revision it can be generalised that 3 biovars exist within the genus, <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i>, <i>Agrobacterium rhizogenes</i>, and <i>Agrobacterium vitis</i>. Strains within <i>Agrobacterium tumefaciens</i> and <i>Agrobacterium rhizogenes</i> are known to be able to harbour either a Ti or Ri-<a href="/facts/Plasmid/yf59JVlA">plasmid</a>, whilst strains of <i>Agrobacterium vitis</i>, generally restricted to grapevines, can harbour a Ti-plasmid. Non-<i>Agrobacterium</i> strains have been isolated from environmental samples which harbour a Ri-plasmid whilst laboratory studies have shown that non-<i>Agrobacterium</i> strains can also harbour a Ti-plasmid. Some environmental strains of <i>Agrobacterium</i> possess neither a Ti nor Ri-plasmid. These strains are avirulent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>The plasmid T-DNA is integrated semi-randomly into the <a href="/facts/Genome/31Sm08JT">genome</a> of the host cell,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> and the tumor morphology genes on the T-DNA are expressed, causing the formation of a gall. The T-DNA carries genes for the biosynthetic enzymes for the production of unusual <a href="/facts/Amino_acid/WDxYwBny">amino acids</a>, typically <a href="/facts/Octopine/TBm2yLYQ">octopine</a> or <a href="/facts/Nopaline/QKL6eA2p">nopaline</a>. It also carries genes for the biosynthesis of the <a href="/facts/Plant_hormones/h3noouev">plant hormones</a>, <a href="/facts/Auxin/xpgQXhwo">auxin</a> and <a href="/facts/Cytokinins/0YkDowo8">cytokinins</a>, and for the biosynthesis of <a href="/facts/Opines/sDcaG77t">opines</a>, providing a carbon and nitrogen source for the bacteria that most other micro-organisms can't use, giving <i>Agrobacterium</i> a <a href="/facts/Selection_(biology)/JXTte6en">selective advantage</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> By altering the hormone balance in the plant cell, the division of those cells cannot be controlled by the plant, and tumors form. The ratio of auxin to cytokinin produced by the tumor genes determines the morphology of the tumor (root-like, disorganized or shoot-like). </p> <h2 id="in-humans">In humans</h2> <p>Although generally seen as an infection in plants, <i>Agrobacterium</i> can be responsible for <a href="/facts/Opportunistic_infection/d6ndMynw">opportunistic infections</a> in humans with weakened <a href="/facts/Immune_system/HRCTf1pb">immune systems</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> but has not been shown to be a primary pathogen in otherwise healthy individuals. One of the earliest associations of human disease caused by <i>Agrobacterium radiobacter</i> was reported by Dr. J. R. Cain in Scotland (1988).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> A later study suggested that <i>Agrobacterium</i> attaches to and genetically transforms several types of human cells by integrating its T-DNA into the human cell genome. The study was conducted using cultured human tissue and did not draw any conclusions regarding related biological activity in nature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="uses-in-biotechnology">Uses in biotechnology</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Horizontal_gene_transfer/FPyUIsf2">Horizontal gene transfer</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Agroinfiltration/rXJDj4T4">Agroinfiltration</a></p> <p>The ability of <i>Agrobacterium</i> to transfer <a href="/facts/Gene/e1swwPY6">genes</a> to <a href="/facts/Plant/X5BMDMvS">plants</a> and fungi is used in <a href="/facts/Biotechnology/8eFnI6FB">biotechnology</a>, in particular, <a href="/facts/Genetic_engineering/vwdlDR61">genetic engineering</a> for <a href="/facts/Plant_improvement/GFlyFbSK">plant improvement</a>. Genomes of plants and fungi can be engineered by use of <i>Agrobacterium</i> for the delivery of sequences hosted in <a href="/facts/Transfer_DNA_binary_system/EE4zvpbn">T-DNA binary vectors</a>. A modified Ti or Ri plasmid can be used. The plasmid is 'disarmed' by deletion of the tumor inducing genes; the only essential parts of the T-DNA are its two small (25 base pair) border repeats, at least one of which is needed for plant transformation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> The genes to be introduced into the plant are cloned into a plant binary vector that contains the T-DNA region of the disarmed <a href="/facts/Plasmid/yf59JVlA">plasmid</a>, together with a selectable marker (such as <a href="/facts/Antimicrobial_resistance/jsbAywgx">antibiotic resistance</a>) to enable selection for plants that have been successfully transformed. Plants are grown on media containing antibiotic following transformation, and those that do not have the T-DNA integrated into their genome will die. An alternative method is <a href="/facts/Agroinfiltration/rXJDj4T4">agroinfiltration</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> <p><a href="/facts/Transformation_(genetics)/n82cCRCu">Transformation</a> with <i>Agrobacterium</i> can be achieved in multiple ways. <a href="/facts/Protoplast/bQkUkF6F">Protoplasts</a> or alternatively leaf-discs can be incubated with the <i>Agrobacterium</i> and whole plants regenerated using <a href="/facts/Plant_tissue_culture/6mWzTuyC">plant tissue culture</a>. In <a href="/facts/Agroinfiltration/rXJDj4T4">agroinfiltration</a> the <i>Agrobacterium</i> may be injected directly into the leaf tissue of a plant. This method transforms only cells in immediate contact with the bacteria, and results in transient expression of plasmid DNA.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p><p>Agroinfiltration is commonly used to transform tobacco (<i><a href="/facts/Nicotiana/Bfh1JnE0">Nicotiana</a></i>). A common transformation protocol for <i><a href="/facts/Arabidopsis_thaliana/wt2IMJsC">Arabidopsis</a></i> is the floral dip method:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> An <a href="/facts/Inflorescence/CvpNd4vS">inflorescence</a> is dipped in a suspension of <i>Agrobacterium</i>, and the bacterium transforms the <a href="/facts/Germline/QI4bKK8Q">germline</a> cells that make the female <a href="/facts/Gametes/j8e8fls6">gametes</a>. The <a href="/facts/Seed/a4xGSLxJ">seeds</a> can then be screened for antibiotic resistance (or another marker of interest). Plants that have not integrated the plasmid DNA will die when exposed to the antibiotic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p><p><i>Agrobacterium</i> is listed as being the vector of genetic material that was transferred to these USA GMOs:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Soybean/reNwxvo2">Soybean</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cotton/efXRcjbn">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">Maize</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sugar_Beet/Rzcof5lb">Sugar Beet</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Alfalfa/Yesc424s">Alfalfa</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Wheat/lrk6HdV3">Wheat</a></li> <li>Rapeseed Oil (<a href="/facts/Canola/jQAEKgkS">Canola</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Creeping_bentgrass/vbdqTIpx">Creeping bentgrass</a> (for animal feed)</li> <li>Rice (<a href="/facts/Golden_Rice/pnH3WK7m">Golden Rice</a>)</li></ul> <p>The <a href="/facts/Transformation_(genetics)/n82cCRCu">transformation</a> of fungi using <i>Agrobacterium</i> is used primarily for research purposes,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> and follows similar approaches as for plant transformation. The <a href="/facts/Transfer_DNA_binary_system/EE4zvpbn">Ti plasmid system</a> is modified to include DNA elements to select for transformed fungal strains, after co-incubation of <i>Agrobacterium</i> strains carrying these plasmids with fungal species. </p> <h2 id="genomics">Genomics</h2> <p>The <i>Agrobacterium</i> genome consists of three parts: a circular <a href="/facts/Chromosome/FRGf11FC">chromosome</a>, a linear chromosome/<a href="/facts/Chromid/fc7Mgxr9">chromid</a>, and (in some species) a <a href="/facts/Ti_plasmid/mV17D061">Ti plasmid</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p><p>The sequencing of the <a href="/facts/Genome/31Sm08JT">genomes</a> of several species of <i>Agrobacterium</i> has permitted the study of the evolutionary history of these organisms and has provided information on the <a href="/facts/Gene/e1swwPY6">genes</a> and systems involved in pathogenesis, biological control and <a href="/facts/Symbiosis/MrBArRGa">symbiosis</a>. One important finding is the possibility that <a href="/facts/Chromosome/FRGf11FC">chromosomes</a> are evolving from <a href="/facts/Plasmid/yf59JVlA">plasmids</a> in many of these bacteria. Another discovery is that the diverse chromosomal structures in this group appear to be capable of supporting both symbiotic and pathogenic lifestyles. The availability of the genome sequences of <i>Agrobacterium</i> species will continue to increase, resulting in substantial insights into the function and evolutionary history of this group of plant-associated microbes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Marc_Van_Montagu/3DQ5zEaX">Marc Van Montagu</a> and <a href="/facts/Jozef_Schell/cPrv9RTW">Jozef Schell</a> at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Ghent/dcmAef7x">University of Ghent</a> (<a href="/facts/Belgium/YKuMXP5j">Belgium</a>) discovered the gene transfer mechanism between <i>Agrobacterium</i> and plants, which resulted in the development of methods to alter <i>Agrobacterium</i> into an efficient delivery system for gene engineering in plants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> A team of researchers led by <a href="/facts/Mary-Dell_Chilton/Ln561wGE">Mary-Dell Chilton</a> were the first to demonstrate that the virulence genes could be removed without adversely affecting the ability of <i>Agrobacterium</i> to insert its own DNA into the plant genome (1983).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Agroinfiltration/rXJDj4T4">Agroinfiltration</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Marc_Van_Montagu/3DQ5zEaX">Marc Van Montagu</a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Rhizobium_rhizogenes/c8xszpxm">Rhizobium rhizogenes</a></i> (formerly <i>Agrobacterium rhizogenes</i>)</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Kyndt T, Quispe D, Zhai H, Jarret R, Ghislain M, Liu Q, et al. (May 2015). <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4426443">"The genome of cultivated sweet potato contains <i>Agrobacterium</i> T-DNAs with expressed genes: An example of a naturally transgenic food crop"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. 112 (18): 5844–9. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PNAS..112.5844K">2015PNAS..112.5844K</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1419685112">10.1073/pnas.1419685112</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4426443">4426443</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25902487">25902487</a>. <ul><li>Lay summary in: Bob Yirka (April 21, 2015). <a href="http://phys.org/news/2015-04-genome-cultivated-sweet-potato-bacterial.html">"Researchers find the genome of the cultivated sweet potato has bacterial DNA"</a>. <i>Phys.org</i>.</li></ul></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.rhizobia.co.nz/taxonomy/not-rhizobia">Current taxonomy of <i>Agrobacterium</i> species, and new <i>Rhizobium</i> names</a></li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110520044820/http://www.gmo-safety.eu/basic-info/294.soil-bacterium-gene-transporter.html">Agrobacteria is used as gene ferry</a> - Plant transformation with <i>Agrobacterium</i>]</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Uchino Y, Yokota A, Sugiyama J (August 1997). "Phylogenetic position of the marine subdivision of Agrobacterium species based on 16S rRNA sequence analysis". The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology. 43 (4): 243–247. doi:10.2323/jgam.43.243. PMID 12501326. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2323%2Fjgam.43.243" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2323%2Fjgam.43.243</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Uchino Y, Hirata A, Yokota A, Sugiyama J (June 1998). "Reclassification of marine Agrobacterium species: Proposals of Stappia stellulata gen. nov., comb. nov., Stappia aggregata sp. nov., nom. rev., Ruegeria atlantica gen. nov., comb. nov., Ruegeria gelatinovora comb. nov., Ruegeria algicola comb. nov., and Ahrensia kieliense gen. nov., sp. nov., nom. rev". The Journal of General and Applied Microbiology. 44 (3): 201–210. doi:10.2323/jgam.44.201. PMID 12501429. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2323%2Fjgam.44.201" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2323%2Fjgam.44.201</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Young JM, Kuykendall LD, Martínez-Romero E, Kerr A, Sawada H (January 2001). "A revision of Rhizobium Frank 1889, with an emended description of the genus, and the inclusion of all species of Agrobacterium Conn 1942 and Allorhizobium undicola de Lajudie et al. 1998 as new combinations: Rhizobium radiobacter, R. rhizogenes, R. rubi, R. undicola and R. vitis". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 51 (Pt 1): 89–103. doi:10.1099/00207713-51-1-89. PMID 11211278. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00207713-51-1-89" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00207713-51-1-89</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Farrand SK, van Berkum PB, Oger P (September 2003). "Agrobacterium is a definable genus of the family Rhizobiaceae". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 53 (Pt 5): 1681–1687. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.02445-0. PMID 13130068. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.02445-0" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.02445-0</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Young JM, Kuykendall LD, Martínez-Romero E, Kerr A, Sawada H (September 2003). "Classification and nomenclature of Agrobacterium and Rhizobium". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 53 (Pt 5): 1689–1695. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.02762-0. PMID 13130069. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.02762-0" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fijs.0.02762-0</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Flores-Félix JD, Menéndez E, Peix A, García-Fraile P, Velázquez E (2020). "History and current taxonomic status of genus Agrobacterium". Syst Appl Microbiol. 43 (1): 126046. doi:10.1016/j.syapm.2019.126046. hdl:10174/28328. PMID 31818496. S2CID 209164436. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Mousavi SA, Österman J, Wahlberg N, Nesme X, Lavire C, Vial L, Paulin L, de Lajudie P, Lindström K (2014). "Phylogeny of the Rhizobium-Allorhizobium-Agrobacterium clade supports the delineation of Neorhizobium gen. nov". Syst Appl Microbiol. 37 (3): 208–215. doi:10.1016/j.syapm.2013.12.007. PMID 24581678. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Mousavi SA, Willems A, Nesme X, de Lajudie P, Lindström K (2015). "Revised phylogeny of Rhizobiaceae: Proposal of the delineation of Pararhizobium gen. nov., and 13 new species combinations". Syst Appl Microbiol. 38 (2): 84–90. doi:10.1016/j.syapm.2014.12.003. PMID 25595870. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Ramírez-Bahena MH, Vial L, Lassalle F, Diel B, Chapulliot D, Daubin V, Nesme X, Muller D (2014). "Single acquisition of protelomerase gave rise to speciation of a large and diverse clade within the Agrobacterium/Rhizobium supercluster characterized by the presence of a linear chromid". Mol Phylogenet Evol. 73: 202–207. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.01.005. PMID 24440816. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Sawada H, Ieki H, Oyaizu H, Matsumoto S (October 1993). "Proposal for rejection of Agrobacterium tumefaciens and revised descriptions for the genus Agrobacterium and for Agrobacterium radiobacter and Agrobacterium rhizogenes". 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