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Phalarodon
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<h2 id="discovery-and-history">Discovery and history</h2> <p>The holotype of <i>Phalarodon fraasi</i>, which consisted of a skull and several jaw fragments, was collected by <a href="/facts/John_Campbell_Merriam/995NlBwA">John Campbell Merriam</a> from <a href="/facts/Fossil_Hill_Member/qhdAoqqY">Fossil Hill</a> in the <a href="/facts/West_Humboldt_Range/vALtK9RM">West Humboldt Range</a> of <a href="/facts/Nevada/HNWhCrQv">Nevada</a>, and was subsequently described by Merriam in 1910.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> Since then, the species has also been found in the <a href="/facts/Guizhou/BWxNrucU">Guizhou Province</a> of <a href="/facts/China/lTjIXY5p">China</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> as well as the Botneheia Formation on the islands of <a href="/facts/Svalbard/7Q2MHDKp">Svalbard</a> in <a href="/facts/Norway/wlDRKRTR">Norway</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> In 2004, a reanalysis of the available mixosaurid materials saw <i>Phalarodon fraasi</i> be merged into the genus <i>Mixosaurus</i> alongside several other species of mixosaurid ichthyosaur.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p><p><i>Phalarodon atavus</i>, from the Lower <a href="/facts/Muschelkalk/RwVGrS6c">Muschelkalk</a> of <a href="/facts/Althengstett/wp06vNU5">Althengstett</a>, <a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a>, was originally described as <i><a href="/facts/Ichthyosaurus/WAc35oqx">Ichthyosaurus</a> atavus</i> by Quenstedt in 1852,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a>: 67 from the <a href="/facts/Middle_Triassic/Y0FBoqA8">Middle Triassic</a> of <a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a> and <a href="/facts/China/lTjIXY5p">China</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> In 1998, reanalysis of the type material found it to be undiagnostic, resulting in a <a href="/facts/Type_(biology)/mTM1beKX">neotype</a> being designated and subsequently described as a new genus, <i>Contectopalatus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </i>Further analyses would see both the rejection of the neotype,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> and the merging of both <i>Phalarodon</i> and<i> Contectopalatus</i>into the genus<i> Mixosaurus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </i>This change in taxonomy would be later overturned, albeit with the merge of <i>Phalarodon</i>and <i>Contectopalatus</i> being maintained<i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </i>Additional specimens of<i> Phalarodon atavus</i> have been found in Middle Triassic Luoping Biota of <a href="/facts/Yunnan/Q924cyfE">Yunnan</a>, China.<i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></i> </p><p><i>Phalarodon callawayi</i>, from the <a href="/facts/Fossil_Hill_Member/qhdAoqqY">Fossil Hill member</a> of the <a href="/facts/Favret_Formation/0D0et6dC">Favret Formation</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> in the <a href="/facts/Augusta_Mountains/flrb8b79">Augusta Mountains</a> of Nevada, was originally described as <i>Mixosaurus callawayi</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> before being reclassified as a species of <i>Phalarodon</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> This species is also known from Svalbard and <a href="/facts/British_Columbia/Ty3e3g1Q">British Columbia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>Additional species of <i>Phalarodon</i> have been identified throughout history,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> but only the three listed here are currently considered valid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> A possible specimen identified as <i>Phalarodon</i> sp. was discovered from the <a href="/facts/Besano_Formation/Ee1xmrg7">Besano Formation</a> of <a href="/facts/Switzerland/LcGuxeTe">Switzerland</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="description">Description</h2> <p><i>Phalarodon</i> had a body plan typical of mixosaurs, being relatively elongate in comparison to later <a href="/facts/Jurassic/o5Cy4KzX">Jurassic</a> ichthyosaur forms. Many specimens consist only of cranial material, meaning that many of the <a href="/facts/Autapomorphy/2AhVNBRl">autapomorphies</a> of <i>Phalarodon</i> are based on the morphology of the skull and jaw. These include the parietal forming a significant portion of the sagittal crest, the absence of a dental groove in the maxilla, and a nasal region with a pronounced narial shelf. Given that not all species possess the same degree of postcranial preservation, few characteristic from this region have been defined, but proposed defining features include an elongated humerus (not preserved in <i>Phalarodon atavus</i>) and fifth metacarpal notched along the anterior edge (not preserved in <i>Phalarodon callawayi</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p><p>In 2000, Maisch and Matzke noted that <i>Contectopalatus</i> (now <i>P. atavus</i>) was a large mixosaurid, calculating a skull length of 40 centimetres (1 ft 4 in). Based on jaw fragments, they estimated another specimen they assigned to the species to have been even larger, with a skull length of 70–80 centimetres (2.3–2.6 ft) and a total length of roughly 4.5–5 metres (15–16 ft).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> McGowan and Motani (2003), however, considered these estimates to be based on material to fragmentary for confident estimation and taxonomic assignment, instead considering the species to be a small mixosaurid, like the roughly 1 metre (3.3 ft) long <i>Mixosaurus cornalianus</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a>: 67 </p> <h2 id="paleobiology">Paleobiology</h2> <p>In 2000, it was found that <i>Phalarodon atavus</i> (then <i>Contectopalatus atavus</i>) possessed a skull morphology indicative of a strong bite. This conclusion aligns with the unique teeth observed in the species, implying that <i>Phalarodon atavus,</i> and other mixosaurids, were highly specialized for particularly dietary niches. Conclusions such as this are typically difficult to reach given that most ichthyosaur remains are functionally preserved in two dimensions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> </p><p>A well preserved specimen of <i>Phalarodon atavus</i> from China has demonstrated that the species would have been an adept swimmer, capable of traversing the <a href="/facts/Tethys_Ocean/X2b2FIu3">Tethyan</a> ocean, as evidenced by the presence of the species in both Germany and China, which were located on opposite coasts of the Tethyan ocean.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p><p>Both being found within the <a href="/facts/Fossil_Hill_Member/qhdAoqqY">Fossil Hill Member</a> of the Favert Formation, <i>Phalarodon callawayi</i> and <i>Phalarodon fraasi</i> would have not only shared an ecosystem with each other, but also with several other species of marine reptiles, including the ichthyosaurs <i><a href="/facts/Cymbospondylus/tpExCKc9">Cymbospondylus</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Omphalosaurus/T11dn2aD">Omphalosaurus</a>,</i> as well as the <a href="/facts/Sauropterygia/rBKU42Nd">sauropterygian</a> <i><a href="/facts/Augustasaurus/88ms76Ym">Augustasaurus</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/List_of_ichthyosaurs/tpUNb1Gq">List of ichthyosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Timeline_of_ichthyosaur_research/qazsdG9g">Timeline of ichthyosaur research</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"†Phalarodon Merriam 1910 (ichthyosaur)". Paleobiology Database. Fossilworks. Retrieved 17 December 2021. <a href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=36568" target="_blank">https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=36568</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Schmitz, L.; Sander, P. M.; Storrs, G. W.; Rieppel, O. (February 2004). "New Mixosauridae (Ichthyosauria) from the Middle Triassic of the Augusta Mountains (Nevada, USA) and their implications for mixosaur taxonomy". Palaeontographica Abteilung A. 270 (4–6): 133–162. Bibcode:2004PalAA.270..133S. doi:10.1127/pala/270/2004/133. S2CID 245901166. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Jiang, D. Y.; Schmitz, L.; Motani, R.; Hao, W. C.; Sun, Y. L. (May 2007). "The Mixosaurid Ichthyosaur Phalarodon cf. P. fraasi from the Middle Triassic of Guizhou Province, China". Journal of Paleontology. 81 (3): 602–605. Bibcode:2007JPal...81..602J. doi:10.1666/05092.1. S2CID 54761545. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Økland, I. H.; Delsett, L. L.; Roberts, A. J.; Hurum, J. H. (October 2018). "A Phalarodon fraasi (Ichthyosauria: Mixosauridae) from the Middle Triassic of Svalbard". Norwegian Journal of Geology. 98 (2): 267–288. doi:10.17850/njg98-2-06. hdl:10852/71100. S2CID 132590633. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Schmitz, L.; Sander, P. M.; Storrs, G. W.; Rieppel, O. (February 2004). "New Mixosauridae (Ichthyosauria) from the Middle Triassic of the Augusta Mountains (Nevada, USA) and their implications for mixosaur taxonomy". Palaeontographica Abteilung A. 270 (4–6): 133–162. Bibcode:2004PalAA.270..133S. doi:10.1127/pala/270/2004/133. S2CID 245901166. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>McGowan, C.; Motani, R. (2003). Sues, H.D. (ed.). Handbook of Paleoherpetology Part 8: Ichthyopterygia. Munich: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil. ISBN 3899370074. <a href="3899370074" target="_blank">3899370074</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Liu, J.; Motani, R.; Jiang, D. Y.; Hu, S. X.; Aitchison, J. C.; Rieppel, O.; Benton, M. J.; Zhang, Q. Y.; Zhou, C. Y. (2013). "The first specimen of the Middle Triassic Phalarodon atavus (Ichthyosauria: Mixosauridae) from South China, showing postcranial anatomy and peri-Tethyan distribution". Palaeontology. 56 (4): 849–866. Bibcode:2013Palgy..56..849L. doi:10.1111/pala.12021. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12021" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12021</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Maisch, M. W.; Matzke, A. T. (May 1998). "Observations on Triassic ichthyosaurs. Part III: A crested predatory mixosaurid from the Middle Triassic of the Germanic Basin". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie. 209 (1): 105–134. doi:10.1127/njgpa/209/1998/105. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Maisch, M. W.; Matzke, A. T. (November 2001). "The Cranial Osteology Of The Middle Triassic Ichthyosaur Contectopalatus From Germany". Palaeontology. 44 (6): 1127–1156. Bibcode:2001Palgy..44.1127M. doi:10.1111/1475-4983.00218. S2CID 131102650. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1475-4983.00218" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1475-4983.00218</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Schmitz, L.; Sander, P. M.; Storrs, G. W.; Rieppel, O. (February 2004). "New Mixosauridae (Ichthyosauria) from the Middle Triassic of the Augusta Mountains (Nevada, USA) and their implications for mixosaur taxonomy". Palaeontographica Abteilung A. 270 (4–6): 133–162. Bibcode:2004PalAA.270..133S. doi:10.1127/pala/270/2004/133. S2CID 245901166. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Jiang, D. Y.; Schmitz, L.; Hao, W. C.; Sun, Y. L. (March 30, 2006). "A New Mixosaurid Ichthyosaur from the Middle Triassic of China". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 26 (1): 60–69. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[60:ANMIFT]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 55171917. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Liu, J.; Motani, R.; Jiang, D. Y.; Hu, S. X.; Aitchison, J. C.; Rieppel, O.; Benton, M. J.; Zhang, Q. Y.; Zhou, C. Y. (July 2013). "The first specimen of the Middle Triassic Phalarodon atavus (Ichthyosauria: Mixosauridae) from South China, showing postcranial anatomy and peri-Tethyan distribution". Palaeontology. 56 (4): 679–915. Bibcode:2013Palgy..56..849L. doi:10.1111/pala.12021. S2CID 129315844. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12021" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12021</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Jiang, D.Y.; Schmitz, L.; Hao, W.C.; Sun, Y.L. (2006). "A new mixosaurid Ichthyosaur from the Middle Triassic of China" (PDF). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 26 (1): 60–69. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[60:ANMIFT]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 55171917. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-08. Retrieved 2023-06-05. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808225104/http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/motani/pdf/JiangEA2005.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20170808225104/http://mygeologypage.ucdavis.edu/motani/pdf/JiangEA2005.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Økland, I.H.; Delsett, L.L.; Roberts, A.J.; Hurum, J.H. (2018). "A Phalarodon fraasi (Ichthyosauria: Mixosauridae) from the Middle Triassic of Svalbard". Norwegian Journal of Geology. 98 (2): 267–288. doi:10.17850/njg98-2-06. hdl:10852/71100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Sander, P.M.; Griebeler, E.M.; Klein, N.; Juarbe, J.V.; Wintrich, T.; Revell, L.J.; Schmitz, L. (2021). "Early giant reveals faster evolution of large body size in ichthyosaurs than in cetaceans". Science. 374 (6575): eabf5787. doi:10.1126/science.abf5787. PMID 34941418. S2CID 245444783. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Schmitz, L.; Sander, P. M.; Storrs, G. W.; Rieppel, O. (February 2004). "New Mixosauridae (Ichthyosauria) from the Middle Triassic of the Augusta Mountains (Nevada, USA) and their implications for mixosaur taxonomy". Palaeontographica Abteilung A. 270 (4–6): 133–162. Bibcode:2004PalAA.270..133S. doi:10.1127/pala/270/2004/133. S2CID 245901166. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Jiang, D. Y.; Schmitz, L.; Hao, W. C.; Sun, Y. L. (March 30, 2006). "A New Mixosaurid Ichthyosaur from the Middle Triassic of China". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 26 (1): 60–69. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[60:ANMIFT]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 55171917. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Schmitz, L.; Sander, P. M.; Storrs, G. W.; Rieppel, O. (February 2004). "New Mixosauridae (Ichthyosauria) from the Middle Triassic of the Augusta Mountains (Nevada, USA) and their implications for mixosaur taxonomy". Palaeontographica Abteilung A. 270 (4–6): 133–162. Bibcode:2004PalAA.270..133S. doi:10.1127/pala/270/2004/133. S2CID 245901166. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>"†Phalarodon Merriam 1910 (ichthyosaur)". Paleobiology Database. Fossilworks. Retrieved 17 December 2021. <a href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=36568" target="_blank">https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=36568</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Liu, J.; Motani, R.; Jiang, D. Y.; Hu, S. X.; Aitchison, J. C.; Rieppel, O.; Benton, M. J.; Zhang, Q. Y.; Zhou, C. Y. (July 2013). "The first specimen of the Middle Triassic Phalarodon atavus (Ichthyosauria: Mixosauridae) from South China, showing postcranial anatomy and peri-Tethyan distribution". Palaeontology. 56 (4): 679–915. Bibcode:2013Palgy..56..849L. doi:10.1111/pala.12021. S2CID 129315844. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12021" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12021</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Klug, C.; Sivgin, T.; Miedema, F.; Scheffold, B.; Reisdorf, A.G.; Stössel, I.; Maxwell, E.E.; Scheyer, T.M. (2024). "Swiss ichthyosaurs: a review". Swiss Journal of Palaeontology. 143. 31. doi:10.1186/s13358-024-00327-4. PMC 11366730. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11366730" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11366730</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Liu, J.; Motani, R.; Jiang, D. Y.; Hu, S. X.; Aitchison, J. C.; Rieppel, O.; Benton, M. J.; Zhang, Q. Y.; Zhou, C. Y. (July 2013). "The first specimen of the Middle Triassic Phalarodon atavus (Ichthyosauria: Mixosauridae) from South China, showing postcranial anatomy and peri-Tethyan distribution". Palaeontology. 56 (4): 679–915. Bibcode:2013Palgy..56..849L. doi:10.1111/pala.12021. S2CID 129315844. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12021" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12021</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Maisch, M.W.; Matzke, A.T. (2000). "The mixosaurid ichthyosaur Contectopalatus from the Middle Triassic of the German Basin". Lethaia. 33 (2): 71–74. Bibcode:2000Letha..33...71M. doi:10.1080/00241160050150186. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230128086" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230128086</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Maisch, M.W.; Matzke, A.T. (2001). "The cranial osteology of the Middle Triassic ichthyosaur Contectopalatus from Germany". Palaeontology. 44 (6): 1127–1156. Bibcode:2001Palgy..44.1127M. doi:10.1111/1475-4983.00218. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1475-4983.00218" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1475-4983.00218</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>McGowan, C.; Motani, R. (2003). Sues, H.D. (ed.). Handbook of Paleoherpetology Part 8: Ichthyopterygia. Munich: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil. ISBN 3899370074. <a href="3899370074" target="_blank">3899370074</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Maisch, M. W.; Matzke, A. T. (June 2000). "The mixosaurid ichthyosaur Contectopalatus from the Middle Triassic of the German Basin". Lethaia. 33 (2): 71–74. Bibcode:2000Letha..33...71M. doi:10.1080/00241160050150186. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Liu, J.; Motani, R.; Jiang, D. Y.; Hu, S. X.; Aitchison, J. C.; Rieppel, O.; Benton, M. J.; Zhang, Q. Y.; Zhou, C. Y. (July 2013). "The first specimen of the Middle Triassic Phalarodon atavus (Ichthyosauria: Mixosauridae) from South China, showing postcranial anatomy and peri-Tethyan distribution". Palaeontology. 56 (4): 679–915. Bibcode:2013Palgy..56..849L. doi:10.1111/pala.12021. S2CID 129315844. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12021" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12021</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Sander, P.M.; Griebeler, E.M.; Klein, N.; Juarbe, J.V.; Wintrich, T.; Revell, L.J.; Schmitz, L. (2021). "Early giant reveals faster evolution of large body size in ichthyosaurs than in cetaceans". Science. 374 (6575): eabf5787. doi:10.1126/science.abf5787. PMID 34941418. S2CID 245444783. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>