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1840 in science
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<h2 id="events">Events</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/William_Whewell/t2urFwd2">William Whewell</a> publishes <i>The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences</i>, introducing the terms <i><a href="/facts/Scientist/JDvthEFM">scientist</a></i> (for the second time) and <i><a href="/facts/Physicist/cQcgvSIm">physicist</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Justus_von_Liebig/0vKzMlDA">Justus von Liebig</a> publishes <i>Die Organische Chemie in ihre Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie</i> in <a href="/facts/Braunschweig/qv0TQYzz">Braunschweig</a>, emphasising the importance of agricultural chemistry in crop production; it will go through at least eight editions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a></li> <li>The first known photograph of <a href="/facts/Niagara_Falls/xoxUleQq">Niagara Falls</a>, a <a href="/facts/Daguerreotype/22CYYBJq">daguerreotype</a>, is taken by English chemist <a href="/facts/Hugh_Lee_Pattinson/MDXSaVaY">Hugh Lee Pattinson</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="astronomy">Astronomy</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/John_William_Draper/HgDtKwP3">John William Draper</a> invents <a href="/facts/Astronomical_photography/NeWNUJEn">astronomical photography</a> and photographs the <a href="/facts/Moon/zKHqEMPb">Moon</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="biology">Biology</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/John_Gould/W2TgEz41">John Gould</a> begins publication of <i><a href="/facts/The_Birds_of_Australia_(Gould)/M8rvjXRI">The Birds of Australia</a></i>.</li></ul> <h2 id="chemistry">Chemistry</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Germain_Hess/1GjQSnu7">Germain Hess</a> proposes <a href="/facts/Hess%27s_law/3fLwnwrj">Hess's law</a>, an early statement of the <a href="/facts/Law_of_conservation_of_energy/12CdN4Ik">law of conservation of energy</a>, which establishes that energy changes in a chemical process depend only on the states of the starting and product materials and not on the specific pathway taken between the two states.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/George_Richards_Elkington/4I83ITbC">George Richards Elkington</a> <a href="/facts/Patent/LjT2bG3A">patents</a> the <a href="/facts/Electroplating/HbKf0SBb">electroplating</a> process invented by surgeon <a href="/facts/John_Wright_(inventor)/HDu5JBvf">John Wright</a> of <a href="/facts/Birmingham/lNd1h81V">Birmingham</a> in England.</li></ul> <h2 id="earth-sciences">Earth sciences</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Louis_Agassiz/W3DJ3zFN">Louis Agassiz</a> publishes his <i>Etudes sur les glaciers</i>, the first major scientific work to propose that the Earth has seen an <a href="/facts/Ice_age/agSMvAgX">ice age</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Roderick_Murchison/LTgFIgUN">Roderick Murchison</a> identifies <a href="/facts/Devonian/nWgakqzk">Devonian</a> stratigraphy in Russia, ending <a href="/facts/The_Great_Devonian_Controversy/9Ef95SYu">the Great Devonian Controversy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="exploration">Exploration</h2> <ul><li>January 19 – Captain <a href="/facts/Charles_Wilkes/ufXUzQmK">Charles Wilkes</a>' <a href="/facts/United_States_Exploring_Expedition/yLq8Cstn">United States Exploring Expedition</a> sights <a href="/facts/Wilkes_Land/CKVxSr49">Wilkes Land</a>, providing evidence that <a href="/facts/Antarctica/bEM5Lem5">Antarctica</a> is a complete continent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></li> <li>January 21 – <a href="/facts/Ad%C3%A9lie_Land/3KqLq28A">Adélie Land</a> first visited by <a href="/facts/Jules_Dumont_d%27Urville/YbWuHpAw">Jules Dumont d'Urville</a> in the <a href="/facts/French_ship_Astrolabe_(1811)/JeeWVuQq">French ship <i>Astrolabe</i></a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></li> <li>The <a href="/facts/Nemesis_(1839)/4zmELndt"><i>Nemesis</i> (1839)</a> becomes the first iron ship to sail around the <a href="/facts/Cape_of_Good_Hope/2gvK5uwP">Cape of Good Hope</a>, aided by techniques to adjust the compass for the effect of an iron hull developed the year before by <a href="/facts/George_Biddell_Airy/R16bNg0k">George Biddell Airy</a>, the <a href="/facts/Astronomer_Royal/GTCk0QaQ">Astronomer Royal</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="history-of-science">History of science</h2> <ul><li>Publication begins in <a href="/facts/Paris/DrNHpwnA">Paris</a> of the <i>Œuvres complètes d’<a href="/facts/Ambroise_Par%C3%A9/kMgbwk9z">Ambroise Paré</a></i> edited by <a href="/facts/Joseph-Fran%C3%A7ois_Malgaigne/Yjeyvt0o">Joseph-François Malgaigne</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="medicine">Medicine</h2> <ul><li>April 15 – <a href="/facts/King%27s_College_Hospital/6wv9JoC7">King's College Hospital</a> opens in <a href="/facts/London/KozCCsy9">London</a>.</li> <li>July 23 – <a href="/facts/Vaccination_Act_1840/kImRmRsr">Vaccination Act 1840</a> in the United Kingdom provides for free <a href="/facts/Vaccination/3SfpzPsd">vaccination</a> for the poor and prohibits <a href="/facts/Variolation/2uqzNTya">variolation</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="metrology">Metrology</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Joseph_Whitworth/K4kQJpJ2">Joseph Whitworth</a> introduces his precision "end measurements" technique.</li></ul> <h2 id="physics">Physics</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss/f4eSMBD7">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> publishes his <i>Dioptrische Untersuchungen</i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> in which he gives the first systematic analysis of the formation of images under a <a href="/facts/Paraxial_approximation/Mj2XrtWm">paraxial approximation</a> (<a href="/facts/Gaussian_optics/Uc9IBe1v">Gaussian optics</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="technology">Technology</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Robert_Bunsen/HYqSh9tH">Robert Bunsen</a> invents the <a href="/facts/Bunsen_cell/52XrJNUP">Bunsen cell</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/British_people/xn7cqlzV">British</a> inventor <a href="/facts/Warren_De_la_Rue/mN4o35JY">Warren De la Rue</a> creates the first <a href="/facts/Light_bulb/v3fb5WBp">light bulb</a> using a vacuum tube, although its use of a <a href="/facts/Platinum/qJC6lQf7">platinum</a> coil makes it commercially unviable.</li></ul> <h2 id="awards">Awards</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Copley_Medal/bBwd6QzN">Copley Medal</a>: <a href="/facts/Justus_Liebig/0vKzMlDA">Justus Liebig</a>; <a href="/facts/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Sturm/N9F0StnF">Charles-François Sturm</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Wollaston_Medal/uVkuXBYJ">Wollaston Medal</a>: <a href="/facts/Andre_Hubert_Dumont/9NrBb50u">Andre Hubert Dumont</a></li></ul> <h2 id="births">Births</h2> <ul><li>January 21 – <a href="/facts/Sophia_Jex-Blake/YVTL8QxJ">Sophia Jex-Blake</a> (died <a href="/facts/1912_in_science/ro3op4mA">1912</a>), <a href="/facts/English_people/IeI9c7BK">English</a> <a href="/facts/Physician/qJ3woFvG">physician</a>.</li> <li>February 5 <ul><li><a href="/facts/John_Boyd_Dunlop/UAz4PwTC">John Boyd Dunlop</a> (died <a href="/facts/1921_in_science/jqlgdekP">1921</a>), Scottish-born <a href="/facts/Inventor/P3LdUHBY">inventor</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Hiram_Maxim/b35ANzMa">Hiram Maxim</a> (died <a href="/facts/1916_in_science/bafd4Cjp">1916</a>), <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">American</a>-born inventor of the <a href="/facts/Machine_gun/JPXmy1zR">machine gun</a>.</li></ul></li> <li>February 10 – <a href="/facts/Per_Teodor_Cleve/0KGIUxKW">Per Teodor Cleve</a> (died <a href="/facts/1905_in_science/L89WrSLG">1905</a>), Swedish <a href="/facts/Chemist/N09K7Bdm">chemist</a>.</li> <li>March 28 – <a href="/facts/Emin_Pasha/zC0YD6nV">Emin Pasha</a>, born Isaak Schnitzer (died <a href="/facts/1892_in_science/tfqwTHgh">1892</a>), Silesian-born <a href="/facts/List_of_explorers/83eyR34D">explorer</a>.</li> <li>March 31 – <a href="/facts/Benjamin_Baker_(engineer)/yRMyxCfV">Benjamin Baker</a> (died <a href="/facts/1907_in_science/6kN1ef3W">1907</a>), English <a href="/facts/Civil_engineer/RjIFIjNe">civil engineer</a>.</li> <li>April 9 – <a href="/facts/Praskovya_Uvarova/tubwoFRK">Praskovya Uvarova</a> (died <a href="/facts/1924_in_science/CFmNQjJJ">1924</a>), Russian archaeologist.</li> <li>April 22 – <a href="/facts/Thomas_Clouston_(psychiatrist)/ey9DnIPT">Thomas Clouston</a> (died <a href="/facts/1915_in_science/NMYGub5y">1915</a>), Scottish <a href="/facts/Psychiatrist/hS7EnAU6">psychiatrist</a>.</li> <li>July 28 – <a href="/facts/Edward_Drinker_Cope/Wup4Ic7k">Edward Drinker Cope</a> (died <a href="/facts/1897_in_science/1IcNGmU5">1897</a>), <a href="/facts/Americans/srd9GJ5U">American</a> <a href="/facts/Paleontologist/60n5yldd">paleontologist</a>.</li> <li>August 4 – <a href="/facts/Richard_von_Krafft-Ebing/HRa2WfYC">Richard von Krafft-Ebing</a> (died <a href="/facts/1902_in_science/W8wVthdY">1902</a>), German <a href="/facts/Sexologist/5q7dF5Cq">sexologist</a>.</li> <li>November 24 – <a href="/facts/John_Brashear/dun1dMol">John Brashear</a> (died <a href="/facts/1920_in_science/FcwHBQPg">1920</a>), American <a href="/facts/Astronomer/ronF8j4a">astronomer</a>.</li> <li>November 29 – <a href="/facts/James_Crichton-Browne/h6PClWRL">James Crichton-Browne</a> (died <a href="/facts/1938_in_science/tUHHnx0z">1938</a>), Scottish psychiatrist.</li></ul> <h2 id="deaths">Deaths</h2> <ul><li>March 2 – <a href="/facts/Heinrich_Wilhelm_Matthias_Olbers/KgvJSXxD">Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers</a> (born <a href="/facts/1758_in_science/ojHFTnnm">1758</a>), German <a href="/facts/Astronomer/ronF8j4a">astronomer</a>.</li> <li>March 23 – <a href="/facts/William_Maclure/GmKqzab5">William Maclure</a> (born <a href="/facts/1763_in_science/N2n5qvaT">1763</a>), Scottish American <a href="/facts/Geologist/vGc0tBHB">geologist</a>.</li> <li>April 25 – <a href="/facts/Sim%C3%A9on_Denis_Poisson/zmsDITrY">Siméon Denis Poisson</a> (born <a href="/facts/1781_in_science/dCMLLjpy">1781</a>), French <a href="/facts/Mathematician/eaFSR8Fx">mathematician</a>.</li> <li>April 29 – <a href="/facts/Pierre_Jean_Robiquet/SNgXPP0n">Pierre Jean Robiquet</a> (born <a href="/facts/1780_in_science/RSenqQ6M">1780</a>), French chemist.</li> <li>July 4 – <a href="/facts/Karl_Ferdinand_von_Gr%C3%A4fe/2SYIg4ku">Karl Ferdinand von Gräfe</a> (born <a href="/facts/1787_in_science/5QrRoAHS">1787</a>), German <a href="/facts/Surgeon/Hm0R9t6n">surgeon</a>.</li> <li>August 31 - <a href="/facts/Giuseppangelo_Fonzi/Gbchd00Y">Giuseppangelo Fonzi</a>, Italian dentist (born <a href="/facts/1768_in_science/HmU2rre0">1768</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></li> <li>September 18 – <a href="/facts/Constantine_Samuel_Rafinesque/d7XBK7x5">Constantine Samuel Rafinesque</a> (born <a href="/facts/1783_in_science/9kHSMVd9">1783</a>), French American <a href="/facts/Polymath/eqIfjQRu">polymath</a>.</li> <li>November 2 – Sir <a href="/facts/Anthony_Carlisle/Ff8VDHJS">Anthony Carlisle</a> (born <a href="/facts/1768_in_science/HmU2rre0">1768</a>), English surgeon.</li> <li>December 11 – <a href="/facts/Franz_Bauer/7hYcnvyn">Franz Bauer</a> (born 1758), Moravian-born botanical illustrator.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Whewell, William (1840). "Introduction". The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, founded upon their history. Vol. 1. London: J. W. Parker. pp. 113, 71. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"scientist, n". Oxford English Dictionary online version. Oxford University Press. September 2011. Retrieved 2011-12-02. (subscription or participating institution membership required) <a href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/172698" target="_blank">http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/172698</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"physicist, n". Oxford English Dictionary online version. Oxford University Press. September 2011. Retrieved 2011-12-02. <a href="http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/143131?redirectedFrom=Physicist#eid" target="_blank">http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/143131?redirectedFrom=Physicist#eid</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Black, George W. (1978). "Justus Liebig's Contribution to Agricultural Chemistry". Journal of Chemical Education. 55 (1): 33. Bibcode:1978JChEd..55...33B. doi:10.1021/ed055p33.1. <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Chemical_Education" target="_blank">/wiki/Journal_of_Chemical_Education</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"Hess, Germain Henri". Archived from the original on 2007-02-09. Retrieved 2007-03-12. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070209062053/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biographies/MainBiographies/H/Hess/1.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070209062053/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Biographies/MainBiographies/H/Hess/1.html</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Rudwick, Martin J. S. (1985). The Great Devonian Controversy: The Shaping of Scientific Knowledge among Gentlemanly Specialists. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/Martin_J._S._Rudwick" target="_blank">/wiki/Martin_J._S._Rudwick</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"Antarctic Exploration — Chronology". Quark Expeditions. 2004. Archived from the original on 2006-09-08. Retrieved 2006-10-20. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060908120017/http://www.quarkexpeditions.com/antarctica/exploration.shtml" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20060908120017/http://www.quarkexpeditions.com/antarctica/exploration.shtml</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Guillon, Jacques (1986). Dumont d'Urville. Paris: France-Empire. ISBN 978-2-7048-0472-6. <a href="978-2-7048-0472-6" target="_blank">978-2-7048-0472-6</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Headrick, Daniel R. (1981). The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-502832-4. <a href="978-0-19-502832-4" target="_blank">978-0-19-502832-4</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Bühler, Walter Kaufmann (1987). Gauss: a biographical study. Springer-Verlag. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-0-387-10662-5. <a href="978-0-387-10662-5" target="_blank">978-0-387-10662-5</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Hecht, Eugene (1987). Optics. Addison Wesley. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-201-11609-0. <a href="978-0-201-11609-0" target="_blank">978-0-201-11609-0</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>"Copley Medal | British scientific award". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 22 July 2020. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Copley-Medal" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/science/Copley-Medal</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Giuseppangelo Lucinto Fonzi entry (in Italian) by Luciano Bonuzzi in the Enciclopedia Treccani, 1997 <a href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giuseppangelo-lucinto-fonzi_(Dizionario-Biografico)/" target="_blank">http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giuseppangelo-lucinto-fonzi_(Dizionario-Biografico)/</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>