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Bacterial cellular morphologies
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<h2 id="types">Types</h2> <h3>Coccus</h3> <p>A coccus (plural <i>cocci</i>, from the Latin <i>coccinus</i> (scarlet) and derived from the Greek <i>kokkos</i> (berry)), is any <a href="/facts/Microorganism/pysJYcE2">microorganism</a> (usually <a href="/facts/Bacteria/wC8xSCsU">bacteria</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> whose overall shape is <a href="/facts/Sphere/jywYLNM2">spherical</a> or nearly spherical.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> Coccus refers to the shape of the bacteria and can contain multiple genera, such as staphylococci or streptococci. Cocci can grow in pairs, chains, or clusters, depending on their orientation and attachment during cell division. In contrast to many bacilli-shaped bacteria, most cocci bacteria do not have flagella and are non-motile.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p><p>Cocci is an English <a href="/facts/Loanword/PWGYczgY">loanword</a> of a <a href="/facts/Neo-Latin/mbBrTVEd">modern or Neo-Latin</a> noun, which in turn stems from the <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek/LIK7NlUh">Greek</a> masculine noun κόκκος (<i>cóccos</i>) meaning 'berry'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p><p>Important human diseases caused by coccoid bacteria include <a href="/facts/Staphylococci/maRQMH6E">staphylococcal</a> infections, some types of <a href="/facts/Food_poisoning/9lxqlJqg">food poisoning</a>, some <a href="/facts/Urinary_tract_infection/4NwY9tL0">urinary tract infections</a>, <a href="/facts/Toxic_shock_syndrome/JC3Ixna4">toxic shock syndrome</a>, <a href="/facts/Gonorrhea/xulQCkLF">gonorrhea</a>, as well as some forms of <a href="/facts/Meningitis/4m4STzJB">meningitis</a>, throat infections, <a href="/facts/Pneumonia/Jw0KquTA">pneumonias</a>, and <a href="/facts/Sinusitis/czg09cPT">sinusitis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h4>Arrangements</h4> <p>Coccoid bacteria often occur in characteristic arrangements and these forms have specific names as well;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> listed here are the basic forms as well as representative bacterial <a href="/facts/Genus/m8EFjSms">genera</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Diplococci/for4DkxQ">Diplococci</a> are pairs of cocci.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Streptococci/Fx8lJ0nz">Streptococci</a> are chains of cocci such as <i><a href="/facts/Streptococcus_pyogenes/qrkSpDz1">Streptococcus pyogenes</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Staphylococci/maRQMH6E">Staphylococci</a> are irregular (grape-like) clusters of cocci (e.g. <i><a href="/facts/Staphylococcus_aureus/9yDVBMsc">Staphylococcus aureus</a></i>).</li> <li>Tetrads are clusters of four cocci arranged within the same plane such as <i><a href="/facts/Micrococcus/zXBbdIK6">Micrococcus</a> sp.</i>).</li> <li><a href="/facts/Sarcina_(bacterium)/4fLS29lE">Sarcina</a> describes a pack-like cuboidal arrangement of eight cocci such as <i><a href="/facts/Sarcina_(bacterium)/4fLS29lE">Sarcina ventriculi</a></i>.</li></ul> <h4>Gram-positive cocci</h4> <p>The <a href="/facts/Gram-positive/H6WYQ17e">gram-positive</a> cocci are a large group of bacteria with similar morphology. All are spherical or nearly so, but they vary considerably in size. Members of some genera are identifiable by the way cells are attached to one another: in pockets, in chains, or grape-like clusters. These arrangements reflect patterns of cell division and that cells stick together. <i>Sarcina</i> cells, for example, are arranged in cubical pockets because cell division alternates regularly among the three perpendicular planes. <i><a href="/facts/Streptococcus/Fx8lJ0nz">Streptococcus</a></i> spp. resemble a string of beads because division always occurs in the same plane. Some of these strings, for example, <a href="/facts/Streptococcus_pneumoniae/B5XxK27j"><i>S. pneumoniae</i></a><i>,</i> are only two cells long. They are called <i>diplococci.</i> Species of <i>Staphylococcus</i> have no regular plane of division. They form grape-like structures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>The various gram-positive cocci differ physiologically and by habitat. <i>Micrococcus</i> spp. are obligate aerobes that inhabit human skin. <i>Staphylococcus</i> spp. also inhabit human skin, but they are facultative anaerobes. They ferment sugars, producing lactic acid as an end product. Many of these species produce carotenoid pigments, which color their colonies yellow or orange. <i><a href="/facts/Staphylococcus_aureus/9yDVBMsc">Staphylococcus aureus</a></i> is a major human pathogen. It can infect almost any tissue in the body, frequently the skin. It often causes nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p> <h4>Diplococci</h4> <p>Diplococci are pairs of cocci. Examples of <a href="/facts/Gram-negative/S1PbVtp4">gram-negative</a> diplococci are <i><a href="/facts/Neisseria/cpbpHsNx">Neisseria</a></i> spp. and <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_catarrhalis/l2C9pEAj">Moraxella catarrhalis</a></i>. Examples of gram-positive diplococci are <i><a href="/facts/Streptococcus_pneumoniae/B5XxK27j">Streptococcus pneumoniae</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Enterococcus/fHlRoS0V">Enterococcus</a></i> spp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> Presumably, diplococcus has been implicated in <a href="/facts/Encephalitis_lethargica/Rfwu7M5R">encephalitis lethargica</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> The genus <i>Neisseria</i> belongs to the family Neisseriaceae. This genus, <i>Neisseria</i>, is divided into more than ten different species, but most of them are gram negative and coccoid. The gram-negative, coccoid species include: <i><a href="/facts/Neisseria_cinerea/0aVjULpo">Neisseria cinerea</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Neisseria_gonorrhoeae/2oq5rccN">N. gonorrhoeae</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Neisseria_polysaccharea/0hkRs0g5">N. polysaccharea</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Neisseria_lactamica/mS2ma6PJ">N. lactamica</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Neisseria_meningitidis/u4SqwHuc">N. meningitidis</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Neisseria_mucosa/0B64c3AR">N. mucosa</a></i>, <i>N. oralis</i> and <i><a href="/facts/Neisseria_subflava/0ngsdol2">N. subflava</a></i>. The most common of these species are the pathogenic <i>N. meningitidis</i> and <i>N. gonorrhoeae</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p><p>The genus <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella/2k9t8NJn">Moraxella</a></i> belongs to the family <i>Moraxellaceae</i>. This genus, <i>Moraxellaceae</i>, comprises gram-negative coccobacilli bacteria: <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_lacunata/HvmoDTr6">Moraxella lacunata</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_atlantae/LnRaymIE">M. atlantae</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_boevrei/tfbBedxR">M. boevrei</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_bovis/ktGcxrFG">M. bovis</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_canis/gIro05nl">M. canis</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_caprae/3HPqGXoM">M. caprae</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_caviae/Fvhzc2qM">M. caviae</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_cuniculi/2zBWADQl">M. cuniculi</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_equi/3PlVrJd0">M. equi</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_lincolnii/sQMzXYwM">M. lincolnii</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_nonliquefaciens/oc2AQXGV">M. nonliquefaciens</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_osloensis/aAYIeRcL">M. osloensis</a></i>, <i>M. ovis</i>, <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_saccharolytica/AEfkQsQd">M. saccharolytica</a></i>, and <i><a href="/facts/Moraxella_pluranimalium/S4XPgN90">M. pluranimalium</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> However, only one has a morphology of diplococcus, <i>M. catarrhalis</i>, a salient pathogen contributing to infections in the human body.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p>The species <i>Streptococcus pneumoniae</i> belongs to the genus <i>Streptococcus</i> and the family <i>Streptococcaceae</i>. The genus <i>Streptococcus</i> has around 129 species and 23 subspecies<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> that benefit many microbiomes on the human body. There are many species that show non-pathogenic characteristics; however, there are some, like <i>S. pneumoniae</i>, that exhibit pathogenic characteristics in the human body.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p><p>The genus <i>Enterococcus</i> belongs to the family <i>Enterococcaceae</i>. This genus is divided into 58 species and two subspecies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> These gram-positive, coccoid bacteria were once thought to be harmless to the human body. However, within the last ten years, there has been an influx of nosocomial pathogens originating from <i>Enterococcus</i> bacteria.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p> <h3>Bacillus</h3> <p>A bacillus (pl.: bacilli), also called a bacilliform bacterium or often just a rod (when the context makes the <a href="/facts/Word_sense/9IR1286V">sense</a> clear), is a rod-shaped bacterium or <a href="/facts/Archaeon/Adxh0aHw">archaeon</a>. Bacilli are found in many different taxonomic groups of bacteria. However, the name <i><a href="/facts/Bacillus/RJNLPx5q">Bacillus</a></i>, capitalized and <a href="/facts/Italics/BECCTMng">italicized</a>, refers to a specific genus of bacteria. The name <a href="/facts/Bacilli/TQwde4wq">Bacilli</a>, capitalized but not italicized, can also refer to a less specific taxonomic group of bacteria that includes two orders, one of which contains the genus <i>Bacillus</i>. When the word is formatted with lowercase and not italicized, 'bacillus', it will most likely be referring to shape and not to the genus. Bacilliform bacteria are also often simply called rods when the bacteriologic context is clear.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>Bacilli usually divide in the same plane and are solitary, but can combine to form diplobacilli, streptobacilli, and palisades.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>Diplobacilli: Two bacilli arranged side by side with each other.</li> <li>Streptobacilli: Bacilli arranged in chains.</li> <li>Coccobacillus: Oval and similar to coccus (circular shaped bacterium).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></li></ul> <p>There is no connection between the shape of a bacterium and its color upon <a href="/facts/Gram_staining/E20u5av2">Gram staining</a>; there are both gram-positive rods and gram-negative rods. <a href="/facts/MacConkey_agar/aKQlMjzo">MacConkey agar</a> can be used to distinguish among gram-negative bacilli such as <i><a href="/facts/Escherichia_coli/nR4Gvl56">E. coli</a></i> and <a href="/facts/Salmonella/2SkCRybG">salmonella</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p> <h4>Arrangements</h4> <p>Bacilli usually divide in the same plane and are solitary, but can combine to form diplobacilli, streptobacilli, and palisades.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>Diplobacilli: Two bacilli arranged side by side with each other.</li> <li>Streptobacilli: Bacilli arranged in chains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a></li></ul> <h4>Gram-positive examples</h4> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Gram-positive_bacteria/H6WYQ17e">Gram-positive bacteria</a></p> <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Actinomyces/Yxy1aGDa">Actinomyces</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Bacillus/RJNLPx5q">Bacillus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Clostridium/HRXJyYCn">Clostridium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Corynebacterium/dPyL8VPz">Corynebacterium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Listeria/HSrJWRFX">Listeria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Propionibacterium/Cmwwkc7I">Propionibacterium</a></i></li></ul> <h4>Gram-negative examples</h4> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Gram-negative_bacteria/S1PbVtp4">Gram-negative bacteria</a></p> <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Bacteroides/Ln9hkTdc">Bacteroides</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Citrobacter/unF1RAJw">Citrobacter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Enterobacter/MErC2JkH">Enterobacter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Escherichia/ehBXfPgT">Escherichia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Klebsiella/mRzCFEfA">Klebsiella</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Pseudomonas/FKEX7p7K">Pseudomonas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Proteus_(bacterium)/pedFoHmr">Proteus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Salmonella/2SkCRybG">Salmonella</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Serratia/rUtUcIRf">Serratia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Shigella/xKEXoT4w">Shigella</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Vibrio/Lkef6ynj">Vibrio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Yersinia/R8QWAIcR">Yersinia</a></i></li></ul> <h3>Coccobacillus</h3> <p>A coccobacillus (plural coccobacilli), or bacillococcus, is a type of bacterium with a shape intermediate between <a href="/facts/Cocci/51QVlEDC">cocci</a> (spherical bacteria) and bacilli (rod-shaped bacteria). Coccobacilli, then, are very short rods which may be mistaken for cocci.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> The word <i>coccobacillus</i> reflects an intermediate shape between <i>coccus</i> (spherical) and <i>bacillus</i> (elongated).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p><p><i><a href="/facts/Haemophilus_influenzae/wqIpoDI1">Haemophilus influenzae</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Gardnerella_vaginalis/3gyr7jL7">Gardnerella vaginalis</a></i>, and <i><a href="/facts/Chlamydia_trachomatis/54QHKFWC">Chlamydia trachomatis</a></i> are coccobacilli. <i><a href="/facts/Aggregatibacter_actinomycetemcomitans/vgmdGjps">Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans</a></i> is a Gram-negative coccobacillus prevalent in subgingival plaques. <i><a href="/facts/Acinetobacter/AQaLIf6T">Acinetobacter</a></i> strains may grow on solid media as coccobacilli. <i><a href="/facts/Bordetella_pertussis/05kplr2K">Bordetella pertussis</a></i> is a Gram-negative coccobacillus responsible for causing <a href="/facts/Whooping_cough/LyrTdSeh">whooping cough</a>. <i><a href="/facts/Yersinia_pestis/LBCfCSeW">Yersinia pestis</a></i>, the bacterium that causes <a href="/facts/Plague_(disease)/4r7oe5lC">plague</a>, is also coccobacillus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p><p><i><a href="/facts/Coxiella_burnetti/XvNfSTkg">Coxiella burnetti</a></i> is also a coccobacillus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> Bacteria from the genus <i><a href="/facts/Brucella/erCr0WsS">Brucella</a></i> are medically important coccobacilli that cause <a href="/facts/Brucellosis/Cq445r85">brucellosis</a>. <i><a href="/facts/Haemophilus_ducreyi/tEpK8Kgj">Haemophilus ducreyi</a></i>, another medically important Gram-negative coccobacillus, is observed in sexually transmitted disease, chancroid, of Third World countries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p> <h3>Spiral</h3> <p>Spiral bacteria are another major bacterial cell morphology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Spiral bacteria can be sub-classified as spirilla, spirochetes, or vibrios based on the number of twists per cell, cell thickness, cell flexibility, and motility.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Bacteria/wC8xSCsU">Bacteria</a> are known to evolve specific traits to survive in their ideal environment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> Bacteria-caused illnesses hinge on the bacteria's physiology and their ability to interact with their environment, including the ability to <a href="/facts/Shapeshifting/SzHHgtzD">shapeshift</a>. Researchers discovered a protein that allows the bacterium <i><a href="/facts/Vibrio_cholerae/DbjgMz9Y">Vibrio cholerae</a></i> to morph into a corkscrew shape that likely helps it twist into — and then escape — the protective mucus that lines the inside of the gut.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p> <h4>Spirillum</h4> <p>A <a href="/facts/Spirillum/kQ3l5qxP">spirillum</a> (plural spirilla) is a rigid spiral bacterium that is gram-negative and frequently has external <a href="/facts/Amphitrichous/nvQRcbgJ">amphitrichous</a> or <a href="/facts/Lophotrichous/nvQRcbgJ">lophotrichous</a> flagella.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> Examples include: </p> <ul><li>Members of the genus <i><a href="/facts/Spirillum/kQ3l5qxP">Spirillum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Campylobacter/lFSkgKUp">Campylobacter</a></i> species, such as <i><a href="/facts/Campylobacter_jejuni/d2290pML">Campylobacter jejuni</a></i>, a foodborne pathogen that causes <a href="/facts/Campylobacteriosis/HGXe6BE4">campylobacteriosis</a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Helicobacter/EYzbnhTU">Helicobacter</a></i> species, such as <i><a href="/facts/Helicobacter_pylori/9q4H68LP">Helicobacter pylori</a></i>, a cause of <a href="/facts/Peptic_ulcers/peMGnYCd">peptic ulcers</a></li></ul> <h4>Spirochetes</h4> <p>A <a href="/facts/Spirochaete/UAy2oy6I">spirochete</a> (plural spirochetes) is a very thin, elongate, flexible, spiral bacteria that is motile via internal periplasmic <a href="/facts/Flagella/nvQRcbgJ">flagella</a> inside the outer membrane.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> They comprise the phylum <a href="/facts/Spirochaete/UAy2oy6I">Spirochaetes</a>. Owing to their morphological properties, spirochetes are difficult to Gram-stain but may be visualized using <a href="/facts/Dark_field_microscopy/Swz0KbFj">dark field microscopy</a> or <a href="/facts/Warthin%E2%80%93Starry_stain/kQ0KGuNW">Warthin–Starry stain</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> Examples include: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Leptospira/qsJlz9o5">Leptospira</a></i> species, which cause <a href="/facts/Leptospirosis/4MSPDpnY">leptospirosis</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Borrelia/9q4ruSdY">Borrelia</a></i> species, such as <i><a href="/facts/Borrelia_burgdorferi/sSvh5CyA">Borrelia burgdorferi</a></i>, a tick-borne bacterium that causes <a href="/facts/Lyme_disease/820IycaC">Lyme disease</a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Treponema/Td85J5su">Treponema</a></i> species, such as <i><a href="/facts/Treponema_pallidum/33nBmQTg">Treponema pallidum</a></i>, subspecies of which causes <a href="/facts/Treponematoses/tH1sNjGX">treponematoses</a>, including <a href="/facts/Syphilis/fdnGLyLT">syphilis</a></li></ul> <h3>Helical</h3> <p><i><a href="/facts/Helicobacter/EYzbnhTU">Helicobacter</a></i> species are <a href="/facts/Helix/BqC4AKwL">helically</a> shaped, the most common example of which is <i><a href="/facts/Helicobacter_pylori/9q4H68LP">Helicobacter pylori</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> A helical shape is seen to be better suited for movement of bacteria in a viscous medium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Bacterial_morphological_plasticity/2TgJ4qpA">Bacterial morphological plasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ferdinand_Cohn/alKLEn6o">Ferdinand Cohn</a> – gave first named shapes of bacteria</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.bacteria-world.com/bacteria-pictures.htm">Bacteria Picture Gallery</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Cole JR (January 1990). "Diagnostic Procedure in Veterinary Bacteriology and Mycology". In Carter GR, Cole JR (eds.). 17 - Streptococcus and Related Cocci (Fifth ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 211–220. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-161775-2.50021-9. ISBN 978-0-12-161775-2. <a href="978-0-12-161775-2" target="_blank">978-0-12-161775-2</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Zapun A, Vernet T, Pinho MG (March 2008). "The different shapes of cocci". FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 32 (2): 345–360. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2007.00098.x. PMID 18266741. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1574-6976.2007.00098.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1574-6976.2007.00098.x</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Pommerville, J.C. (2013). Fundamentals of Microbiology (10th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett. p. 106. 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