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Hydrogen breath test
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<h2 id="conditions">Conditions</h2> <p>Tests vary from country to country, so the following information is provided as a rough guide to typical uses of the hydrogen breath test: </p><p><a href="/facts/Fructose_malabsorption/5UcNrcc7">Fructose malabsorption</a> – the patient takes a base reading of hydrogen levels in their breath. The patient is then given 25-35g of <a href="/facts/Fructose/pEqWJC2N">fructose</a>, and then required to take readings every 15, 30 or 60 minutes for three - five hours. The basis of the test is a failure to absorb the given sugar, which is then metabolized by bacteria that give off either hydrogen or methane. Therefore, the more gas that is produced, the less absorption has occurred. If the level of hydrogen rises above 20 ppm (parts per million) over the lowest preceding value within the test period, the patient is typically diagnosed as a fructose malabsorber. If the patient produces methane then the parts per million for the methane typically rises 12 ppm over the lowest preceding value to be considered positive. If the patient produces both hydrogen and methane then the values are typically added together and the mean of the numbers is used to determine positive results, usually 15 ppm over the lowest preceding value. A positive result may also be caused by <a href="/facts/Small_intestinal_bacterial_overgrowth/mJEC29TI">small intestinal bacterial overgrowth</a>, rather than fructose malabsorption.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Lactose_intolerance/sD6q8shx">Lactose malabsorption</a> – the patient takes a base reading of hydrogen levels in their breath. The patient is then given a small amount of pure <a href="/facts/Lactose/lBa5ozYk">lactose</a> (typically 20 to 25 g), and then required to take readings every 15, 30 or 60 minutes for two to three hours. If the level of hydrogen rises above 20 ppm (parts per million) over the lowest preceding value within the test period, the patient is typically diagnosed as a <a href="/facts/Lactose_intolerance/sD6q8shx">lactose malabsorber</a>. If the patient produces methane then the parts per million for the methane typically rises 12 ppm over the lowest preceding value to be considered positive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> If the patient produces both hydrogen and methane then the values are typically added together and the mean of the numbers is used to determine positive results, usually 15 ppm over the lowest preceding value.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> A positive result may also be caused by <a href="/facts/Small_intestinal_bacterial_overgrowth/mJEC29TI">small intestinal bacterial overgrowth</a>, rather than lactose malabsorption.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Small_intestinal_bacterial_overgrowth/mJEC29TI">Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth</a> (SIBO) – the patient is either given a challenge dose of <a href="/facts/Glucose/oUSkoLCD">glucose</a>, also known as dextrose (75–100 grams), or <a href="/facts/Lactulose/WoETI5Ks">lactulose</a> (10 grams). A baseline breath sample is collected, and then additional samples are collected at 15 minute or 20 minute intervals for 2 hours. Positive diagnosis for a lactulose SIBO breath test – typically positive if the patient produces approximately 20 ppm of hydrogen and/or methane within the first 60–90 minutes (indicates bacteria in the small intestine), followed by a much larger peak (colonic response). This is also known as a biphasic pattern. Lactulose is not absorbed by the digestive system and can help determine distal end bacterial overgrowth, which means the bacteria are lower in the small intestine. </p> <h3>Alternative test methods</h3> <p>The idea that a SIBO test should be several hours long and that distal overgrowth is important is not supported by the scientific literature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> The optimal testing is 1 hour.[<i>dubious – discuss</i>] Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO) occurs as a result of excessive numbers of bacteria inhabiting the proximal small intestine. Bacterial concentrations greater than 105 organisms per milliliter is diagnostic for SIBO. We know bacteria are colonizing the proximal and not the distal small intestine for several reasons. First, the gold standard method for detection of SIBO is jejunal aspirates.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> Intestinal fluid of the proximal intestine is sampled, not distal intestinal fluid. Secondly, the consequences of SIBO are the result of competition between bacteria and the human host for ingested nutrients in the intestine. Various functional consequences of bacterial infiltration cause enterocyte damage in the jejunum such as diminished disaccharidase activity, fat malabsorption, decreased amino acid transport and decreased vitamin B12 absorption. Thus, detection of proximal bacterial overgrowth is critical. </p><p>The SIBO breath test typically uses a 10 gram oral dose of lactulose for detection of proximal bacterial overgrowth. The best practice is to have breath samples collected at 20, 40, and 60 minutes after dosing. Since SIBO occurs in the proximal intestine, breath samples should be collected only within 1 hour after lactulose ingestion. This truly reflects proximal intestinal bacterial activity, not distal or colonic activity. The same argument is true if glucose is the substrate. </p><p>Lactulose is a carbohydrate that is not absorbed by humans. Lactulose is well known to measure oro-cecal transit time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> The mean oro-cecal transit time in normal healthy individuals is 70 to 90 minutes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> By 90 minutes, at least 50% of individuals would have delivered the lactulose dose to the colon. Approximately 90 to 95% of individuals have colonic bacteria that can metabolize lactulose to hydrogen or methane gas. Thus, any SIBO breath test that collects longer than 60 minutes may be measuring colonic activity. Diagnostic criteria of 20 ppm hydrogen and/or methane changes within 90 or 120 minutes will have higher positive rates of SIBO but this will reflect colonic activity not jejunal metabolism. A one-hour SIBO breath test avoids false positive results by collecting breath up to 60 minutes. </p><p>Positive diagnosis for a glucose SIBO breath test – glucose is absorbed by the digestive system so studies have shown it to be harder to diagnose distal end bacterial overgrowth since the glucose typically doesn't reach the colon before being absorbed. An increase of approximately 12 ppm or more in hydrogen and/or methane during the breath test could conclude bacterial overgrowth. Recent study indicates "The role of testing for SIBO in individuals with suspected IBS remains unclear."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>The excess hydrogen or methane is assumed to be typically caused by an overgrowth of otherwise normal <a href="/facts/Gut_flora/Xy1IWzSP">intestinal bacteria</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p><p>Other breath tests that can be taken include: <a href="/facts/Sucrose_intolerance/Wf9cK4e6">sucrose intolerance</a>, d-<a href="/facts/Xylose/MrboHHP9">xylose</a> and <a href="/facts/Sorbitol/LA9MsjYb">sorbitol</a>. </p> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.medicinenet.com/hydrogen_breath_test/article.htm">Hydrogen Breath Test information</a> from MedicineNet.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Eisenmann, A.; Amann, A.; Said, M.; Datta, B.; Ledochowski, M. (2008). "Implementation and interpretation of hydrogen breath tests". Journal of Breath Research. 2 (4): 1–9. Bibcode:2008JBR.....2d6002E. doi:10.1088/1752-7155/2/4/046002. PMID 21386189. S2CID 31706721. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Rezaie, A (2017). "Hydrogen and Methane-Based Breath Testing in Gastrointestinal Disorders: The North American Consensus". The American Journal of Gastroenterology. 112 (5): 775–784. doi:10.1038/ajg.2017.46. PMC 5418558. PMID 28323273. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5418558" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5418558</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Rana, Satya Vati; Malik, Aastha (2014-10-01). "Hydrogen Breath Tests in Gastrointestinal Diseases". Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry. 29 (4): 398–405. doi:10.1007/s12291-014-0426-4. ISSN 0970-1915. PMC 4175689. PMID 25298621. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4175689" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4175689</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Simren, M.; Statzer, P-O. (2006). "Use and abuse of hydrogen breath tests". Gut. 55 (3): 297–303. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.075127. PMC 1856094. PMID 16474100. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1856094" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1856094</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>de Lacy Costello BP, Ledochowski M, Ratcliffe NM (2013). "The importance of methane breath testing: a review". Journal of Breath Research (Review). 7 (2): 024001. Bibcode:2013JBR.....7b4001D. doi:10.1088/1752-7155/7/2/024001. PMID 23470880. S2CID 7675133. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Simren, M.; Statzer, P-O. (2006). "Use and abuse of hydrogen breath tests". Gut. 55 (3): 297–303. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.075127. PMC 1856094. PMID 16474100. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1856094" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1856094</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Massey, Benson T.; Wald, Arnold (10 October 2020). "Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth Syndrome: A Guide for the Appropriate Use of Breath Testing". Digestive Diseases and Sciences. 66 (2): 338–347. doi:10.1007/s10620-020-06623-6. ISSN 1573-2568. PMID 33037967. S2CID 222234070. Retrieved 24 October 2020. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33037967/" target="_blank">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33037967/</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Nucera G, Gabrielli M, Lupascu A, Lauritano EC, Santoliquido A, Cremonini F, Cammarota G, Tondi P, Pola P, Gasbarrini G, Gasbarrini A (June 2005). "Abnormal breath tests to lactose, fructose and sorbitol in irritable bowel syndrome may be explained by small intestinal bacterial overgrowth". Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 21 (11): 1391–5. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02493.x. PMID 15932370. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Ghoshal, U. C. (2011). "How to interpret hydrogen breath tests". J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 17 (3): 312–317. doi:10.5056/jnm.2011.17.3.312. PMC 3155069. PMID 21860825. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3155069" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3155069</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Deng, Yanyong; Misselwitz, Benjamin; Dai, Ning; Fox, Mark (2015-09-18). "Lactose Intolerance in Adults: Biological Mechanism and Dietary Management". Nutrients. 7 (9): 8020–8035. doi:10.3390/nu7095380. ISSN 2072-6643. PMC 4586575. PMID 26393648. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4586575" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4586575</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Däbritz, Jan; Mühlbauer, Michael; Domagk, Dirk; Voos, Nicole; Henneböhl, Geraldine; Siemer, Maria L; Foell, Dirk (2014-02-27). "Significance of hydrogen breath tests in children with suspected carbohydrate malabsorption". BMC Pediatrics. 14: 59. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-14-59. ISSN 1471-2431. PMC 3975941. PMID 24575947. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3975941" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3975941</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Nucera G, Gabrielli M, Lupascu A, Lauritano EC, Santoliquido A, Cremonini F, Cammarota G, Tondi P, Pola P, Gasbarrini G, Gasbarrini A (June 2005). "Abnormal breath tests to lactose, fructose and sorbitol in irritable bowel syndrome may be explained by small intestinal bacterial overgrowth". Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 21 (11): 1391–5. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02493.x. PMID 15932370. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Basilisco, G.; Risicato, R.; Bonazzi, P; Di Sario, A.; Portincasa, P. (2009). "H2-breath testing for evaluation of oro-caecal transit time". Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 29: 23–26. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.03951.x. PMID 19344474. S2CID 3905599. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2036.2009.03951.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2036.2009.03951.x</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Eisenmann, A.; Amann, A.; Said, M.; Datta, B.; Ledochowski, M. (2008). "Implementation and interpretation of hydrogen breath tests". Journal of Breath Research. 2 (4): 1–9. Bibcode:2008JBR.....2d6002E. doi:10.1088/1752-7155/2/4/046002. PMID 21386189. S2CID 31706721. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Simren, M.; Statzer, P-O. (2006). "Use and abuse of hydrogen breath tests". Gut. 55 (3): 297–303. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.075127. PMC 1856094. PMID 16474100. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1856094" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1856094</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Hirakawa, M.; Lida, M.; Kohrogi, N.; et al. (1988). "Hydrogen breath test assessment of orocecal transit time: Comparison with barium meal study". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 83 (12): 1361–1363. PMID 3195540. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/PMID_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Bond, J.H.; Levitt, M.D.; Prentiss, R. (1975). "Investigation of small bowel transit time in man utilizing pulmonary hydrogen (H2) measurements". J. Lab. Clin. Med. 85 (4): 546–555. PMID 1120927. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/PMID_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Ghoshal, U. C. (2011). "How to interpret hydrogen breath tests". J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 17 (3): 312–317. doi:10.5056/jnm.2011.17.3.312. PMC 3155069. PMID 21860825. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3155069" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3155069</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Basilisco, G.; Risicato, R.; Bonazzi, P; Di Sario, A.; Portincasa, P. (2009). "H2-breath testing for evaluation of oro-caecal transit time". Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 29: 23–26. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.03951.x. PMID 19344474. S2CID 3905599. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2036.2009.03951.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2036.2009.03951.x</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Eisenmann, A.; Amann, A.; Said, M.; Datta, B.; Ledochowski, M. (2008). "Implementation and interpretation of hydrogen breath tests". Journal of Breath Research. 2 (4): 1–9. Bibcode:2008JBR.....2d6002E. doi:10.1088/1752-7155/2/4/046002. PMID 21386189. S2CID 31706721. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Simren, M.; Statzer, P-O. (2006). "Use and abuse of hydrogen breath tests". Gut. 55 (3): 297–303. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.075127. PMC 1856094. PMID 16474100. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1856094" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1856094</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Hirakawa, M.; Lida, M.; Kohrogi, N.; et al. (1988). "Hydrogen breath test assessment of orocecal transit time: Comparison with barium meal study". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 83 (12): 1361–1363. PMID 3195540. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/PMID_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Bond, J.H.; Levitt, M.D.; Prentiss, R. (1975). "Investigation of small bowel transit time in man utilizing pulmonary hydrogen (H2) measurements". J. Lab. Clin. Med. 85 (4): 546–555. PMID 1120927. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/PMID_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Ghoshal, U. C. (2011). "How to interpret hydrogen breath tests". J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 17 (3): 312–317. doi:10.5056/jnm.2011.17.3.312. PMC 3155069. PMID 21860825. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3155069" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3155069</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Basilisco, G.; Risicato, R.; Bonazzi, P; Di Sario, A.; Portincasa, P. (2009). "H2-breath testing for evaluation of oro-caecal transit time". Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 29: 23–26. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.03951.x. PMID 19344474. S2CID 3905599. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2036.2009.03951.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2036.2009.03951.x</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Eisenmann, A.; Amann, A.; Said, M.; Datta, B.; Ledochowski, M. (2008). "Implementation and interpretation of hydrogen breath tests". Journal of Breath Research. 2 (4): 1–9. Bibcode:2008JBR.....2d6002E. doi:10.1088/1752-7155/2/4/046002. PMID 21386189. S2CID 31706721. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Simren, M.; Statzer, P-O. (2006). "Use and abuse of hydrogen breath tests". Gut. 55 (3): 297–303. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.075127. PMC 1856094. PMID 16474100. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1856094" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1856094</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Hirakawa, M.; Lida, M.; Kohrogi, N.; et al. (1988). "Hydrogen breath test assessment of orocecal transit time: Comparison with barium meal study". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 83 (12): 1361–1363. PMID 3195540. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/PMID_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Bond, J.H.; Levitt, M.D.; Prentiss, R. (1975). "Investigation of small bowel transit time in man utilizing pulmonary hydrogen (H2) measurements". J. Lab. Clin. Med. 85 (4): 546–555. PMID 1120927. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/PMID_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Ghoshal, U. C. (2011). "How to interpret hydrogen breath tests". J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 17 (3): 312–317. doi:10.5056/jnm.2011.17.3.312. PMC 3155069. PMID 21860825. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3155069" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3155069</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Ford, A. C.; Spiegel, B. M.; Talley, N. J.; Moayyedi, P. (August 12, 2009). "Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in irritable bowel syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis". Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 7 (12): 1279–86. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2009.06.031. PMID 19602448. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cgh.2009.06.031" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cgh.2009.06.031</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Basilisco, G.; Risicato, R.; Bonazzi, P; Di Sario, A.; Portincasa, P. (2009). "H2-breath testing for evaluation of oro-caecal transit time". Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 29: 23–26. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.03951.x. PMID 19344474. S2CID 3905599. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2036.2009.03951.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2036.2009.03951.x</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Eisenmann, A.; Amann, A.; Said, M.; Datta, B.; Ledochowski, M. (2008). "Implementation and interpretation of hydrogen breath tests". Journal of Breath Research. 2 (4): 1–9. Bibcode:2008JBR.....2d6002E. doi:10.1088/1752-7155/2/4/046002. PMID 21386189. S2CID 31706721. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Simren, M.; Statzer, P-O. (2006). "Use and abuse of hydrogen breath tests". Gut. 55 (3): 297–303. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.075127. PMC 1856094. 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