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Close back rounded vowel
open-in-new
<h2 id="close-back-protruded-vowel">Close back protruded vowel</h2> <p>The close back protruded vowel is the most common variant of the close back rounded vowel. It is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨u⟩ (the convention used in this article). As there is no dedicated <a href="/facts/IPA_diacritic/2e7jmUaG">IPA diacritic</a> for protrusion, the symbol for the close back rounded vowel with an old diacritic for labialization, ⟨ ̫⟩, can be used as an ad hoc symbol ⟨u̫⟩. Another possible transcription is ⟨uʷ⟩ or ⟨ɯʷ⟩ (a close back vowel modified by endolabialization), but that could be misread as a diphthong. </p> <h3>Features</h3> <ul><li>Its <a href="/facts/Vowel/BNhCeFtH">vowel height</a> is <a href="/facts/Close_vowel/Ne6tHQHR">close</a>, also known as high, which means the tongue is positioned close to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a <a href="/facts/Consonant/81X2SGS6">consonant</a>.</li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Vowel_backness/BNhCeFtH">vowel backness</a> is <a href="/facts/Back_vowel/gyHoGCH0">back</a>, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a <a href="/facts/Consonant/81X2SGS6">consonant</a>.</li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Roundedness/2NImak2G">roundedness</a> is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed.</li></ul> <h3>Occurrence</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2">Language</th><th>Word</th><th><a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">IPA</a></th><th>Meaning</th><th>Notes</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Afrikaans/jYqEPHmA">Afrikaans</a></td><td>Standard<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Afrikaans_alphabet/jYqEPHmA">boek</a></i></td><td>[bu̜k]</td><td>'book'</td><td>Only weakly rounded.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Afrikaans_phonology/Pyw01kjo">Afrikaans phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Modern_Standard_Arabic/rXAjtFSs">Standard</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Arabic_alphabet/hCA1a0xq">جنوب</a>/ǧanuub</td><td>[d͡ʒaˈnuːb]</td><td>'south'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Arabic_phonology/4WhkxU18">Arabic phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Armenian_language/tELuE2wG">Armenian</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Eastern_Armenian/qvxWtyD1">Eastern</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Armenian_alphabet/eah4kBXh">դուռ</a>/dur</td><td>[dur]</td><td>'door'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Bavarian_language/mdBH4q9z">Bavarian</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Amstetten_dialect/wXAmL3jL">Amstetten dialect</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></td><td>und</td><td>[und̥]</td><td>'and'</td><td>Contrasts close [u], near-close [<a href="/facts/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel/4taYcT5v">o̝</a>], close-mid [<a href="/facts/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel/VwS9cKWJ">o</a>] and open-mid [<a href="/facts/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel/yMNUClGt">ɔ</a>] back rounded vowels in addition to the open central unrounded [<a href="/facts/Open_central_unrounded_vowel/XuGme0KM">ä</a>].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Bulgarian_language/susG15pr">Bulgarian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Bulgarian_alphabet/L6bXeRPS">луд</a>/lud</td><td>[ɫut̪]</td><td>'crazy'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Bulgarian_phonology/mkE8GYYp">Bulgarian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Catalan_language/W2uTbK8Q">Catalan</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Catalan_orthography/EuUUrU6u">suc</a></i></td><td>[s̺uk]</td><td>'juice'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Catalan_phonology/Hlw9yKdg">Catalan phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><a href="/facts/Chinese_language/771ruUY1">Chinese</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Standard_Chinese/ofl48GA8">Mandarin</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Chinese_characters/5pn1PFvj">土</a> / <i><a href="/facts/Pinyin/pUwjfMXg">tǔ</a></i></td><td>[tʰu˨˩˦]</td><td>'earth'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Standard_Chinese_phonology/Bl7Mr2RM">Standard Chinese phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Cantonese/y5UhgScP">Cantonese</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Chinese_characters/5pn1PFvj">夫</a> / <i><a href="/facts/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese/rajusu3X">fū</a></i></td><td>[fuː˥]ⓘ</td><td>'man'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Cantonese_phonology/VcGG3tAD">Cantonese phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Shanghainese/o4MEAwa2">Shanghainese</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Chinese_characters/5pn1PFvj">瓜</a>/ku</td><td>[ku˩]</td><td>'melon'</td><td>Height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back compressed vowel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Chuvash_language/2pvVW2sT">Chuvash</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cyrillic_script/0btN3oWC">урам</a></td><td>[uˈram]</td><td>'street'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Danish_language/sTcGXTMJ">Danish</a></td><td>Standard<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Danish_and_Norwegian_alphabet/5zESIVcN">du</a></i></td><td>[tu]</td><td>'you'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Danish_phonology/pcTRA2ln">Danish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Dutch_language/yIB5lbsx">Dutch</a></td><td>Standard<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Dutch_orthography/BHW9KxMr">voet</a></i></td><td>[vut]ⓘ</td><td>'foot'</td><td>Somewhat fronted in Belgian Standard Dutch.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="12"><a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Australian_English/S1qgz29t">Australian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></td><td rowspan="2"><i><a href="/facts/English_orthography/1Exe2W6G">book</a></i></td><td rowspan="2">[buk]</td><td rowspan="2">'book'</td><td>Corresponds to [<a href="/facts/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel/4taYcT5v">ʊ</a>] in other accents. See <a href="/facts/Australian_English_phonology/c2syQQKF">Australian English phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Cape_Flats_English/fhk8G48e">Cape Flats</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a></td><td>May be advanced to [<a href="/facts/Close_central_rounded_vowel/y5ozF3Nk">ʉ</a>], or lowered and unrounded to [<a href="/facts/Close-mid_back_unrounded_vowel/pjtf82xl">ɤ</a>].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/South_African_English_phonology/New3WE4X">South African English phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td>Cultivated <a href="/facts/South_African_English/5IIVeacu">South African</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a></td><td rowspan="9"><i><a href="/facts/English_orthography/1Exe2W6G">boot</a></i></td><td rowspan="7">[bu̟ut]</td><td rowspan="9">'boot'</td><td rowspan="2">Typically <a href="/facts/Relative_articulation/tr1T3A3s">more front</a> than <a href="/facts/Cardinal_vowels/qfwjSIvX">cardinal</a> [uw]. See <a href="/facts/White_South_African_English_phonology/New3WE4X">White South African English phonology</a> and <a href="/facts/American_English_phonology/sdAfgPgM">American English phonology</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/General_American/gmHBob3k">General American</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Geordie/9Eu97sWR">Geordie</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></td><td>May be central [<a href="/facts/Close_central_rounded_vowel/y5ozF3Nk">ʉː</a>] instead.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Hiberno-English/1RhpyNrx">Irish</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></td><td>Realized as central [<a href="/facts/Close_central_rounded_vowel/y5ozF3Nk">ʉː</a>] in <a href="/facts/Ulster_English/CRPbBqp5">Ulster</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>Some <a href="/facts/Multicultural_London_English/mdJQC8vL">Multicultural London</a> speakers<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></td><td>More commonly front [<a href="/facts/Close_front_rounded_vowel/fAyNrUxL">yː</a>].</td></tr><tr><td>Conservative <a href="/facts/Received_Pronunciation/YRBWev67">Received Pronunciation</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></td><td>Realized as central [<a href="/facts/Close_central_rounded_vowel/y5ozF3Nk">ʉ</a>] in modern RP.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Welsh_English/78zM2R0f">Welsh</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Pakistani_English/LQYQK7FI">Pakistani</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a></td><td>[buːʈ]</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/New_York_City_English/yvsPeYpX">Greater New York City</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a></td><td>[buːt]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/New_Zealand_English/sMLCt6FI">New Zealand</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/English_orthography/1Exe2W6G">treacle</a></i></td><td>[ˈtɹ̝̊iːku]</td><td>'treacle'</td><td>Possible realization of the unstressed vowel /ɯ/, which is variable in rounding and ranges from central to (more often) back and close to close-mid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Corresponds to /əl/ in other accents. See <a href="/facts/New_Zealand_English_phonology/IsRtBRyk">New Zealand English phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Estonian_language/ywCJos4e">Estonian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Estonian_orthography/gQysa5Qj">sule</a></i></td><td>[ˈsule̞]</td><td>'feather' (gen. sg.)</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Estonian_phonology/xX5AF3wy">Estonian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Finnish_language/lBuEIgs0">Finnish</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Finnish_orthography/l3bdMLPd">kukka</a></i></td><td>[ˈkukːɑ]</td><td>'flower'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Finnish_phonology/p1kjVpQ5">Finnish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Faroese_language/1nf145FG">Faroese</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Faroese_orthography/u0ua704c">gulur</a></i></td><td>[ˈkuːlʊɹ]</td><td>'yellow'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Faroese_phonology/Muq1mE7R">Faroese phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/French_language/qe1DnaQh">French</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/French_orthography/JkoJ2W1I">où</a></i></td><td>[u]ⓘ</td><td>'where'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/French_phonology/f5Px9rwj">French phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Georgian_language/DoKtMLfq">Georgian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Georgian_language/DoKtMLfq">გუდა</a>/guda</td><td>[ɡudɑ]</td><td>'leather bag'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/German_language/oWaQIDA8">German</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Standard_German/9qsa3C2S">Standard</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/German_orthography/wRfTdcfG">Fuß</a></i></td><td>[fuːs]ⓘ</td><td>'foot'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Standard_German_phonology/mxAMM3la">Standard German phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td>Many speakers<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/German_orthography/wRfTdcfG">Stunde</a></i></td><td>[ˈʃtundə]</td><td>'hour'</td><td>The usual realization of /ʊ/ in Switzerland, Austria and partially also in Western and Southwestern Germany (Palatinate, Swabia).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Standard_German_phonology/mxAMM3la">Standard German phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Greek_language/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Modern_Greek/nFsDHrfR">Modern</a> Standard<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Greek_alphabet/1cHwB8Dg">που</a> / <a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Greek/KTELT9Aq"><i>pou</i></a></td><td>[pu]</td><td>'where'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Modern_Greek_phonology/8YqswHuV">Modern Greek phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Hungarian_language/nt4g0ano">Hungarian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Hungarian_alphabet/oItxF0Ug">út</a></i></td><td>[uːt̪]</td><td>'way'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Hungarian_phonology/TXf5qlfU">Hungarian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Icelandic_language/4GmzhaoT">Icelandic</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Icelandic_orthography/g7rC0IpL">þú</a></i></td><td>[θ̠u]</td><td>'you'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Icelandic_phonology/SlmBgmH5">Icelandic phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Indonesian_language/J8Q78Ywb">Indonesian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a></td><td>Standard Indonesian</td><td><i><a href="/facts/Indonesian_Spelling_System/IvjPoPqS">unta</a></i></td><td>[unta]</td><td>'camel'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Indonesian_phonology/QQx0BUjN">Indonesian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Italian_language/YXsmvlQG">Italian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Italian_orthography/QP2BJ6J7">tutto</a></i></td><td>[ˈt̪ut̪t̪o]</td><td>'all', 'everything'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Italian_phonology/6ClLWgLo">Italian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Kaingang_language/B6ueBQ1Y">Kaingang</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a></td><td></td><td>[ˈndukːi]</td><td>'in the belly'</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Kazakh_language/rh22ccFt">Kazakh</a></td><td>туған/<i>tuğan</i></td><td>[t̪ʰuˈʁɑ̝̃n̪]</td><td>'native'</td><td>Transcribed phonemically as ⟨ʊw⟩</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Khmer_language/RVR7NyzQ">Khmer</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Khmer_script/al76EeT6">ភូមិ</a> / <i>phumĭ</i></td><td>[pʰuːm]</td><td>'village'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Khmer_phonology/RVR7NyzQ">Khmer phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Korean_language/dmNnRxAA">Korean</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Hangul/prUQxzfJ">눈</a> / <i><a href="/facts/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean/jA5Fz40j">nun</a></i></td><td>[nuːn]</td><td>'snow'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Korean_phonology/1hlWNext">Korean phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><a href="/facts/Kurdish_languages/6LSckYAz">Kurdish</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Kurmanji/4pp4wtq5">Kurmanji (Northern)</a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Kurdish_orthography/wCl6RAqJ">çû</a></i></td><td rowspan="3">[tʃʰuː]</td><td rowspan="3">'wood'</td><td rowspan="3">See <a href="/facts/Kurdish_phonology/pQUTcsRL">Kurdish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Sorani/S4RYJYNB">Sorani (Central)</a></td><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Kurdish_orthography/wCl6RAqJ">چوو</a>/çû</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Palewani/mqMmRcok">Palewani (Southern)</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Classical_Latin/xFLyGtxs">Classical</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Latin_orthography/k3R2Yrlt">sus</a></i></td><td>[suːs]</td><td>'pig'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Limburgish_language/5mS23Txg">Limburgish</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a></td><td><i>sjoen</i></td><td>[ʃu̟n]</td><td>'beautiful'</td><td>Back<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> or near-back,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> depending on the dialect. The example word is from the <a href="/facts/Maastrichtian_dialect/s8alvrPR">Maastrichtian dialect</a>.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Lower_Sorbian_language/cfo2ezgm">Lower Sorbian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a></td><td><i>zub</i></td><td>[z̪up]</td><td>'tooth'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Luxembourgish_language/HsVzn2YA">Luxembourgish</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a></td><td><i>Luucht</i></td><td>[luːχt]</td><td>'air'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Luxembourgish_phonology/AvfPMEy5">Luxembourgish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Malay_language/2T6pPtgv">Malay</a></td><td><i>ubat</i></td><td>[u.bät]</td><td>'medicine'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Malay_phonology/QQx0BUjN">Malay phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Malayalam_language/YLuvDWd3">Malayalam</a></td><td>ഉപ്പ്</td><td>upːɨ̆</td><td>'Salt'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Malayalam_phonology/YLuvDWd3">Malayalam phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Mongolian_language/0Lxog7Md">Mongolian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Mongolian_Cyrillic_alphabet/crls9N99">үүр</a>/üür</td><td>[uːɾɘ̆]</td><td>'nest'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Mpade_language/a03SbzTT">Mpade</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a></td><td><i>kusumu</i></td><td>[kusumu]</td><td>'mouse'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nogai_language/8lwfgYu1">Nogai</a></td><td>сув</td><td>[suː]</td><td>'water'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Persian_language/jfUYbHbt">Persian</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Persian_orthography/jfUYbHbt">دور</a>/dur</td><td>[duɾ]</td><td>'far'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Persian_phonology/k6TNKDgn">Persian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Polish_language/lzpvYDvV">Polish</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Polish_orthography/BBpK4VAt">buk</a></i></td><td>[buk]ⓘ</td><td>'beech tree'</td><td>Also represented orthographically by ⟨ó⟩. See <a href="/facts/Polish_phonology/tEdotI3h">Polish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Portuguese_language/vr3Fwzw3">Portuguese</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Portuguese_orthography/B6H9WRGa">tu</a></i></td><td>[ˈtu]</td><td>'you'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Portuguese_phonology/hu1DbLe8">Portuguese phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Romanian_language/zAY3GnkL">Romanian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Romanian_alphabet/B6nm24Q6">unu</a></i></td><td>[ˈun̪u]</td><td>'one'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Romanian_phonology/WBLopvtW">Romanian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Russian_language/ETXrTgHV">Russian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Russian_orthography/Kqy6hRtX">узкий</a>/uzkiy/uzkij</td><td>[ˈus̪kʲɪj]ⓘ</td><td>'narrow'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Russian_phonology/JCPYSFSV">Russian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Scottish_Gaelic_language/KMI4MmzJ">Scottish Gaelic</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Scottish_Gaelic_orthography/5ar8xEwY"><i>ùbhlan</i></a></td><td>[ˈuːl̪ˠən]</td><td>'apples'</td><td>Normal realisation of /uː/ in most dialects. In Lewis and Wester Ross as an allophone in proximity to broad sonorants; /uː/ elsewhere fronted to [<a href="/facts/Close_central_rounded_vowel/y5ozF3Nk">ʉː</a>] or [<a href="/facts/Close_front_rounded_vowel/fAyNrUxL">yː</a>].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Serbo-Croatian/MS85Xuwk">Serbo-Croatian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Serbian_Cyrillic_alphabet/d5s1lFk2">дуга</a> / <i><a href="/facts/Gaj%2527s_Latin_alphabet/hxF8FTpe">duga</a></i></td><td>[d̪ǔːɡä]</td><td>'rainbow'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Serbo-Croatian_phonology/RgNSQU8A">Serbo-Croatian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Shiwiar_language/rDYbBQsy">Shiwiar</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a></td><td>[<i>example needed</i>]</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Spanish_language/95BgYNfv">Spanish</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Spanish_orthography/DNP7QG9J">curable</a></i></td><td>[kuˈɾäβ̞le̞]</td><td>'curable'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Spanish_phonology/y7knma4G">Spanish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Sotho_language/v4nqXojT">Sotho</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Sotho_orthography/DAgajUVD">tumo</a></i></td><td>[tʼumɔ]</td><td>'fame'</td><td>Contrasts close, near-close and close-mid back rounded vowels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Sotho_phonology/esLNYJfF">Sotho phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Swahili_language/sLzhutLC">Swahili</a></td><td><i>ubongo</i></td><td>[ubongo]</td><td>'brain'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Tagalog_language/G8UARRIl">Tagalog</a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Filipino_orthography/eGqejUch">utang</a></i></td><td>[ˈʔutɐŋ]</td><td>'debt'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Thai_language/PnaLdG77">Thai</a></td><td>Standard<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a></td><td>ชลบุรี/chonburi</td><td>[tɕ͡ʰōn.bū.rīː]ⓘ</td><td>'<a href="/facts/Chonburi_Province/WbBEtXlu">Chonburi</a>'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Turkish_language/C5X56Ijp">Turkish</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Turkish_alphabet/Skpn0bkK">uzak</a></i></td><td>[uˈz̪äk]</td><td>'far'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Turkish_phonology/bm1otksF">Turkish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Udmurt_language/IUPQrbHj">Udmurt</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cyrillic_script/0btN3oWC">урэтэ</a>/urėtė</td><td>[urete]</td><td>'to divide'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Ukrainian_language/2zDw7rpD">Ukrainian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Ukrainian_alphabet/RXdMx44m">рух</a>/rukh</td><td>[rux]</td><td>'motion'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Ukrainian_phonology/tMNnkv5W">Ukrainian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Upper_Sorbian_language/DuARBHID">Upper Sorbian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a></td><td><i>žuk</i></td><td>[ʒuk]</td><td>'beetle'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Urdu_language/oLrhuXc6">Urdu</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Urdu_alphabet/SzLs2Poc">دُور</a>/dur</td><td>[duɾ]</td><td>'far'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Urdu_phonology/jSJYXe1d">Urdu phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Welsh_language/4Pz8r6yk">Welsh</a></td><td>mwg</td><td>[muːɡ]</td><td>'smoke'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/Welsh_phonology/lu715FFI">Welsh phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/West_Frisian_language/h7PVP7S6">West Frisian</a></td><td>jûn</td><td>[juːn]</td><td>'evening, tonight'</td><td>See <a href="/facts/West_Frisian_phonology/Iv3uqmV0">West Frisian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Yoruba_language/q5osdFqR">Yoruba</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a></td><td>itọju</td><td>[itɔju]</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Zapotec_languages/Yh09rWyg">Zapotec</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Tilquiapan_Zapotec/REz3SXMX">Tilquiapan</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a></td><td><i>gdu</i></td><td>[ɡdu]</td><td>'all'</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="close-back-compressed-vowel">Close back compressed vowel</h2> <p>Some languages, such as <a href="/facts/Japanese_language/EEv485a5">Japanese</a> and <a href="/facts/Swedish_language/1DkSIXkH">Swedish</a>, have a close back vowel that has a distinct <a href="/facts/Roundedness/2NImak2G">type of rounding</a>, called <i>compressed</i> or <i>exolabial</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> Only <a href="/facts/Shanghainese/o4MEAwa2">Shanghainese</a> is known to contrast it with the more typical <i>protruded</i> (endolabial) close back vowel, but the height of both vowels varies from close to close-mid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> </p><p>There is no dedicated <a href="/facts/IPA_diacritic/2e7jmUaG">diacritic</a> for compression in the IPA. However, compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨<a href="/facts/Voiced_bilabial_approximant/2ljHM92m">β̞</a>⟩ as ⟨ɯ͡β̞⟩ (simultaneous [ɯ] and labial compression) or ⟨ɯᵝ⟩ ([ɯ] modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic ⟨ ͍⟩ may also be used with a rounded vowel letter ⟨u͍⟩ as an <i>ad hoc</i> symbol, but 'spread' technically means unrounded. </p> <h3>Features</h3> <ul><li>Its <a href="/facts/Vowel/BNhCeFtH">vowel height</a> is <a href="/facts/Close_vowel/Ne6tHQHR">close</a>, also known as high, which means the tongue is positioned close to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a <a href="/facts/Consonant/81X2SGS6">consonant</a>.</li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Vowel_backness/BNhCeFtH">vowel backness</a> is <a href="/facts/Back_vowel/gyHoGCH0">back</a>, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a <a href="/facts/Consonant/81X2SGS6">consonant</a>.</li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Roundedness/2NImak2G">roundedness</a> is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense and drawn together in such a way that the inner surfaces are not exposed.</li></ul> <h3>Occurrence</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2">Language</th><th>Word</th><th><a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">IPA</a></th><th>Meaning</th><th>Notes</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Chinese_language/771ruUY1">Chinese</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Shanghainese/o4MEAwa2">Shanghainese</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Chinese_characters/5pn1PFvj">都</a>/tub</td><td>[tɯᵝ˩]</td><td>'capital'</td><td>Height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back protruded vowel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Japanese_language/EEv485a5">Japanese</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Japanese_orthography/0Jt6VooH">空気</a> / <i><a href="/facts/Romanization_of_Japanese/7JdM0cAy">kūki</a></i></td><td>[kɯ̟ᵝːki]ⓘ</td><td>'air'</td><td>Near-back; may be realized as central [<a href="/facts/Close_central_compressed_vowel/y5ozF3Nk">ɨᵝ</a>] by younger speakers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Japanese_phonology/PvY84Cf1">Japanese phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Lizu_language/nEaQ36oS">Lizu</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a></td><td colspan="2">[Fmɯ̟ᵝ]</td><td>'feather'</td><td>Near-back.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Norwegian_language/TGEyeerM">Norwegian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Norwegian_alphabet/ersy5Mfu">mot</a></i></td><td>[mɯᵝːt]</td><td>'courage'</td><td>The example word is from <a href="/facts/Urban_East_Norwegian/EyyTNCeo">Urban East Norwegian</a>, in which the vowel can be diphthongized to [ɯᵝə̯].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Norwegian_phonology/jmBIScAK">Norwegian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Swedish_language/1DkSIXkH">Swedish</a></td><td>Central Standard<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Swedish_alphabet/9vQCp9EF">oro</a></i></td><td>[²ɯᵝːrɯᵝː]</td><td>'unease'</td><td>Often realized as a sequence [ɯᵝβ̞] or [ɯᵝβ]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> (hear the word: [²ɯᵝβrɯᵝβ]ⓘ). See <a href="/facts/Swedish_phonology/2NY3Prus">Swedish phonology</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Index_of_phonetics_articles/IwhbEHGN">Index of phonetics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Close_central_compressed_vowel/y5ozF3Nk">Close central compressed vowel</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Close_front_protruded_vowel/fAyNrUxL">Close front protruded vowel</a></li></ul> <h2 id="citations">Citations</h2> <ul><li>Allison, Sean (2006), <a href="http://www.silcam.org/resources/archives/32321"><i>Alphabet et orthographe de Kotoko de Makary (mpadɨ) (Makary Kotoko Orthography Statement)</i></a>, SIL</li> <li>Árnason, Kristján (2011), <i>The Phonology of Icelandic and Faroese</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-922931-4</li> <li>Arvaniti, Amalia (2007), "Greek Phonetics: The State of the Art", <i>Journal of Greek Linguistics</i>, 8: 97–208, <a href="/facts/CiteSeerX_(identifier)/SceDmd3c">CiteSeerX</a> <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.692.1365">10.1.1.692.1365</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fjgl.8.08arv">10.1075/jgl.8.08arv</a></li> <li>Asu, Eva Liina; Teras, Pire (2009), "Estonian", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 39 (3): 367–372, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs002510030999017x">10.1017/s002510030999017x</a></li> <li>Bamgboṣe, Ayọ (1966), <i>A Grammar of Yoruba</i>, [West African Languages Survey / Institute of African Studies], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</li> <li><a href="/facts/Hans_Basb%25C3%25B8ll/XYF4d9r5">Basbøll, Hans</a> (2005), <i>The Phonology of Danish</i>, Taylor & Francis, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-203-97876-4</li> <li>Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul (2004), "New Zealand English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), <i>A handbook of varieties of English</i>, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 580–602, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-11-017532-5</li> <li>Carbonell, Joan F.; Llisterri, Joaquim (1992), "Catalan", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 22 (1–2): 53–56, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004618">10.1017/S0025100300004618</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249411809">249411809</a></li> <li>Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287375585">"Shanghai Chinese"</a>, <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 45 (3): 321–327, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100315000043">10.1017/S0025100315000043</a></li> <li>Chirkova, Katia; Chen, Yiya (2013), "Lizu", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 43 (1): 75–86, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100312000242">10.1017/S0025100312000242</a></li> <li>Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (1990), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C">"The Phonetics of Cardiff English"</a>, in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), <i>English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change</i>, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 87–103, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-85359-032-0</li> <li>Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2013) [First published 2003], <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=faVJTQIw9eQC"><i>Practical Phonetics and Phonology: A Resource Book for Students</i></a> (3rd ed.), Routledge, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-50650-2</li> <li>Connolly, John H. (1990), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C">"Port Talbot English"</a>, in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), <i>English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change</i>, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 121–129, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-85359-032-0</li> <li>Cox, Felicity; Fletcher, Janet (2017) [First published 2012], <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBs3DwAAQBAJ"><i>Australian English Pronunciation and Transcription</i></a> (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-316-63926-9</li> <li>Cox, Felicity; Palethorpe, Sallyanne (2007), "Australian English", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 37 (3): 341–350, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100307003192">10.1017/S0025100307003192</a></li> <li>Cruttenden, Alan (2014), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ"><i>Gimson's Pronunciation of English</i></a> (8th ed.), Routledge, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781444183092</li> <li>Cruz-Ferreira, Madalena (1995), <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/0A8156D240CCB941A73C4C0EC1672A19/S0025100300005223a.pdf/european-portuguese.pdf">"European Portuguese"</a> (PDF), <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 25 (2): 90–94, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300005223">10.1017/S0025100300005223</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249414876">249414876</a></li> <li>Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WUsbAQAAIAAJ"><i>Ukrainian</i></a>, Lincom Europa, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9783929075083</li> <li><a href="/facts/Clement_Martyn_Doke/WUaHVmJq">Doke, Clement Martyn</a>; Mofokeng, S. 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Smith, Caroline L (1993), "French", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 23 (2): 73–76, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004874">10.1017/S0025100300004874</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249404451">249404451</a></li> <li>Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 43 (1): 67–74, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100312000278">10.1017/S0025100312000278</a></li> <li>Göksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005), <i>Turkish: a comprehensive grammar</i>, Routledge, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0415114943</li> <li>Grønnum, Nina (1998), "Illustrations of the IPA: Danish", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 28 (1 & 2): 99–105, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100300006290">10.1017/s0025100300006290</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:249412109">249412109</a></li> <li>Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), "Dutch", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 22 (2): 45–47, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002510030000459X">10.1017/S002510030000459X</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243772965">243772965</a></li> <li>Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), <a href="http://gep.ruhosting.nl/carlos/gussenhoven_aarts.pdf">"The dialect of Maastricht"</a> (PDF), <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 29 (2): 155–166, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300006526">10.1017/S0025100300006526</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145782045">145782045</a></li> <li>Gussmann, Edmund (2011). <a href="https://repozytorium.amu.edu.pl/jspui/bitstream/10593/1729/1/071-090.pdf">"Getting your head around: the vowel system of Modern Icelandic"</a> (PDF). <i>Folia Scandinavica Posnaniensia</i>. 12: 71–90. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-83-232-2296-5.</li> <li>Hall, Christopher (2003) [First published 1992], <i>Modern German pronunciation: An introduction for speakers of English</i> (2nd ed.), Manchester: Manchester University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7190-6689-4</li> <li>Haugen, Einar (1974) [1965], <i>Norwegian-English Dictionary</i>, The University of Wisconsin Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-299-03874-8</li> <li>Iivonen, Antti; Harnud, Huhe (2005), "Acoustical comparison of the monophthong systems in Finnish, Mongolian and Udmurt", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 35 (1): 59–71, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002510030500191X">10.1017/S002510030500191X</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145733117">145733117</a></li> <li>Jassem, Wiktor (2003), "Polish", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 33 (1): 103–107, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001191">10.1017/S0025100303001191</a></li> <li>Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2009), <a href="http://www.iel.unicamp.br/revista/index.php/seta/article/view/557/474">"Fonologia e prosódia do Kaingáng falado em Cacique Doble"</a>, <i>Anais do SETA</i>, 3, Campinas: 675–685</li> <li>Jones, Daniel; Ward, Dennis (1969), <i>The Phonetics of Russian</i>, Cambridge University Press</li> <li><a href="/facts/Celadet_Bedir_Khan/vMDYxbIu">Khan, Celadet Bedir</a>; Lescot, Roger (1970), <a href="http://tirsik.net/danegeh/pirtuk/celadet_ali_bedirxan/Grammaire%20kurde%20(Dialecte%20kurmandji).pdf"><i>Grammaire Kurde (Dialecte kurmandji)</i></a> (PDF), Paris: La librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient Adrien Maisonneuve, retrieved 28 October 2017</li> <li><a href="/facts/Gjert_Kristoffersen/tVzTJkX5">Kristoffersen, Gjert</a> (2000), <i>The Phonology of Norwegian</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-823765-5</li> <li><a href="/facts/Peter_Ladefoged/GPHjbHmP">Ladefoged, Peter</a>; <a href="/facts/Ian_Maddieson/p0cyavQ2">Maddieson, Ian</a> (1996), <i>The Sounds of the World's Languages</i>, Oxford: Blackwell, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-631-19814-7</li> <li>Landau, Ernestina; Lončarića, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999), "Croatian", <i>Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–69, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-65236-0</li> <li>Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.), <i>Language in South Africa</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780521791052</li> <li>Lee, Wai-Sum; 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(2004), <a href="https://www.academia.edu/816224">"Pakistani English: phonology"</a>, in Schneider, Edgar W. (ed.), <i>A handbook of varieties of English</i>, vol. 1, Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1003–1015</li> <li>Mannell, R.; Cox, F.; Harrington, J. (2009), <a href="http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonetics/vowelgraphs/AusE_Monophthongs.html"><i>An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology</i></a>, Macquarie University</li> <li>Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003), "Castilian Spanish", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 33 (2): 255–259, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001373">10.1017/S0025100303001373</a></li> <li>Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), <a href="http://www.balsas-nahuatl.org/mixtec/Christian_articles/Otomanguean/Merrill.pdf">"Tilquiapan Zapotec"</a> (PDF), <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 38 (1): 107–114, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100308003344">10.1017/S0025100308003344</a></li> <li>Oftedal, Magne (1956), <a href="https://www.alastairmcintosh.com/general/resources/1956-Magne-Oftedal-Leurbost-Gaelic.pdf"><i>The Gaelic of Leurbost, Isle of Lewis</i></a> (PDF), Norsk Tidskrift for Sprogvidenskap</li> <li>Okada, Hideo (1999), <a href="https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_jpn_phon-2">"Japanese"</a>, in International Phonetic Association (ed.), <i>Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet</i>, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–119, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-52163751-0</li> <li>Peters, Jörg (2006), "The dialect of Hasselt", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 36 (1): 117–124, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100306002428">10.1017/S0025100306002428</a></li> <li>Roach, Peter (2004), "British English: Received Pronunciation", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 34 (2): 239–245, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001768">10.1017/S0025100304001768</a></li> <li>Rogers, Derek; d'Arcangeli, Luciana (2004), "Italian", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 34 (1): 117–121, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001628">10.1017/S0025100304001628</a></li> <li>Rosenqvist, Håkan (2007), <i>Uttalsboken: svenskt uttal i praktik och teori</i>, Stockholm: Natur & Kultur, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-91-27-40645-2</li> <li>Sarlin, Mika (2014) [First published 2013], <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nKWpBAAAQBAJ">"Sounds of Romanian and their spelling"</a>, <i>Romanian Grammar</i> (2nd ed.), Helsinki: Books on Demand GmbH, pp. 16–37, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-952-286-898-5</li> <li>Šewc-Schuster, Hinc (1984), <i>Gramatika hornjo-serbskeje rěče</i>, Budyšin: Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina</li> <li>Shosted, Ryan K.; Chikovani, Vakhtang (2006), <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A7DCF9606BA856FCA5CC25918ADB37EF/S0025100306002659a.pdf/standard_georgian.pdf">"Standard Georgian"</a> (PDF), <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 36 (2): 255–264, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100306002659">10.1017/S0025100306002659</a></li> <li>Stone, Gerald (2002), "Sorbian (Upper and Lower)", in Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G. 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(2006a), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210227111912/https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Sorani/sorani_1_grammar.pdf"><i>—Sorani Kurdish— A Reference Grammar with Selected Readings</i></a> (PDF), archived from <a href="https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Sorani/sorani_1_grammar.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 27 February 2021, retrieved 29 October 2017</li> <li>Thelwall, Robin; Sa'Adeddin, M. Akram (1990), "Arabic", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 20 (2): 37–39, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004266">10.1017/S0025100300004266</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243640727">243640727</a></li> <li>Tingsabadh, M. R. Kalaya; Abramson, Arthur S. (1993), "Thai", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 23 (1): 24–28, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004746">10.1017/S0025100300004746</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242001518">242001518</a></li> <li>Traunmüller, Hartmut (1982), "Vokalismus in der westniederösterreichischen Mundart.", <i>Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik</i>, 2: 289–333</li> <li>Trudgill, Peter (2009), <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233523754">"Greek Dialect Vowel Systems, Vowel Dispersion Theory, and Sociolinguistic Typology"</a>, <i>Journal of Greek Linguistics</i>, 9 (1): 80–97, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156658409X12500896406041">10.1163/156658409X12500896406041</a></li> <li>Vanvik, Arne (1979), <i>Norsk fonetikk</i>, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-82-990584-0-7</li> <li>Verhoeven, Jo (2005), "Belgian Standard Dutch", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 35 (2): 243–247, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100305002173">10.1017/S0025100305002173</a></li> <li>Watt, Dominic; Allen, William (2003), "Tyneside English", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 33 (2): 267–271, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001397">10.1017/S0025100303001397</a></li> <li>Wheelock, Frederick M.; LaFleur, Richard A. (2011) [1956]. <i>Wheelock's Latin</i> (Seventh ed.). HarperCollins. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-06-199722-8.</li> <li>Zee, Eric (1999), "Chinese (Hong Kong Cantonese)", <i>Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 58–60, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-65236-0</li> <li>Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180725111322/http://www.uta.edu/faculty/cmfitz/swnal/projects/CoLang/courses/Transcription/rosettaproject_tur_phon-2.pdf">"Turkish"</a> (PDF), <i>Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-65236-0, archived from <a href="http://www.uta.edu/faculty/cmfitz/swnal/projects/CoLang/courses/Transcription/rosettaproject_tur_phon-2.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2018-07-25, retrieved 2015-11-20</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://phoible.org/parameters?sSearch_0=u">List of languages with [u]</a> on <a href="/facts/PHOIBLE/2qqHhjzI">PHOIBLE</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low". <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Association" target="_blank">/wiki/International_Phonetic_Association</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Donaldson (1993), pp. 2, 5. - Donaldson, Bruce C. (1993), "1. Pronunciation", A Grammar of Afrikaans, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1–35, ISBN 9783110134261 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ftzioRvJzTUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=ftzioRvJzTUC</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Donaldson (1993), p. 5. - Donaldson, Bruce C. (1993), "1. Pronunciation", A Grammar of Afrikaans, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 1–35, ISBN 9783110134261 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ftzioRvJzTUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=ftzioRvJzTUC</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Thelwall & Sa'Adeddin (1990), p. 38. - Thelwall, Robin; Sa'Adeddin, M. Akram (1990), "Arabic", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 20 (2): 37–39, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266, S2CID 243640727 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004266" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004266</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Dum-Tragut (2009), p. 13. - Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Traunmüller (1982), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:290) - Traunmüller, Hartmut (1982), "Vokalismus in der westniederösterreichischen Mundart.", Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 2: 289–333 <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Traunmüller (1982), cited in Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:290) - Traunmüller, Hartmut (1982), "Vokalismus in der westniederösterreichischen Mundart.", Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, 2: 289–333 <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Ternes & Vladimirova-Buhtz (1999), p. 56. - Ternes, Elmer; Vladimirova-Buhtz, Tatjana (1999), "Bulgarian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 55–57, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=33BSkFV_8PEC&pg=PA55" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=33BSkFV_8PEC&pg=PA55</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 54. - Carbonell, Joan F.; Llisterri, Joaquim (1992), "Catalan", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (1–2): 53–56, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004618, S2CID 249411809 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004618" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004618</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Lee & Zee (2003), pp. 110–111. - Lee, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (2003), "Standard Chinese (Beijing)", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 109–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001208 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001208" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001208</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Duanmu (2007), pp. 35–36. - Duanmu, San (2007) [First published 2000], The Phonology of Standard Chinese (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-921578-2 <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Zee (1999), pp. 59–60. - Zee, Eric (1999), "Chinese (Hong Kong Cantonese)", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 58–60, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0 <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329. - Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043 <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287375585" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287375585</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329. - Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043 <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287375585" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287375585</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Grønnum (1998), p. 100. - Grønnum, Nina (1998), "Illustrations of the IPA: Danish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 28 (1 & 2): 99–105, doi:10.1017/s0025100300006290, S2CID 249412109 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100300006290" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100300006290</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Basbøll (2005), p. 46. - Basbøll, Hans (2005), The Phonology of Danish, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-203-97876-4 <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Gussenhoven (1992), p. 47. - Gussenhoven, Carlos (1992), "Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (2): 45–47, doi:10.1017/S002510030000459X, S2CID 243772965 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002510030000459X" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002510030000459X</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Verhoeven (2005), p. 245. - Verhoeven, Jo (2005), "Belgian Standard Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 243–247, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002173 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100305002173" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100305002173</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Verhoeven (2005), p. 245. - Verhoeven, Jo (2005), "Belgian Standard Dutch", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 243–247, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002173 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100305002173" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100305002173</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Cox & Palethorpe (2007), p. 344. - Cox, Felicity; Palethorpe, Sallyanne (2007), "Australian English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (3): 341–350, doi:10.1017/S0025100307003192 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100307003192" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100307003192</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Cox & Fletcher (2017), p. 65. - Cox, Felicity; Fletcher, Janet (2017) [First published 2012], Australian English Pronunciation and Transcription (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-316-63926-9 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBs3DwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBs3DwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Finn (2004), p. 970. - Finn, Peter (2004), "Cape Flats English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 964–984, ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5 <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Finn (2004), p. 970. - Finn, Peter (2004), "Cape Flats English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, vol. 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 964–984, ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5 <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Lass (2002), p. 116. - Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.), Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521791052 <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009). - Mannell, R.; Cox, F.; Harrington, J. (2009), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology, Macquarie University <a href="http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonetics/vowelgraphs/AusE_Monophthongs.html" target="_blank">http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonetics/vowelgraphs/AusE_Monophthongs.html</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Watt & Allen (2003), p. 268. - Watt, Dominic; Allen, William (2003), "Tyneside English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 267–271, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001397 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001397" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001397</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Raymond Hickey (2004). Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider (ed.). A Handbook of Varieties of English Volume 1: Phonology. De Gruyter. p. 91. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Cruttenden (2014), p. 91. - Cruttenden, Alan (2014), Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 9781444183092 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=M2nMAgAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Roach (2004), p. 242. - Roach, Peter (2004), "British English: Received Pronunciation", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 239–245, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001768 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001768" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001768</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Collins & Mees (1990), p. 95. - Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (1990), "The Phonetics of Cardiff English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 87–103, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Connolly (1990), p. 125. - Connolly, John H. (1990), "Port Talbot English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 121–129, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Tench (1990), p. 135. - Tench, Paul (1990), "The Pronunciation of English in Abercrave", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 130–141, ISBN 978-1-85359-032-0 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=tPwYt3gVbu4C</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Mahboob & Ahmar (2004), p. 1007. - Mahboob, Ahmar; Ahmar, Nadra H. (2004), "Pakistani English: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W. 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(eds.), The Slavonic Languages, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 593–685, ISBN 9780415280785 <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:88"><p>Šewc-Schuster (1984), p. 20. - Šewc-Schuster, Hinc (1984), Gramatika hornjo-serbskeje rěče, Budyšin: Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:89"><p>Bamgboṣe (1966), p. 166. - Bamgboṣe, Ayọ (1966), A Grammar of Yoruba, [West African Languages Survey / Institute of African Studies], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:90"><p>Merrill (2008), p. 109. - Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344 <a href="http://www.balsas-nahuatl.org/mixtec/Christian_articles/Otomanguean/Merrill.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.balsas-nahuatl.org/mixtec/Christian_articles/Otomanguean/Merrill.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:91"><p>Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), p. 295. - Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996), The Sounds of the World's Languages, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-19814-7 <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:92"><p>Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329. - Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043 <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287375585" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287375585</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:93"><p>Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329. - Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043 <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287375585" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287375585</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:94"><p>Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329. - Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043 <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287375585" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287375585</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:95"><p>Okada (1999), p. 118. - Okada, Hideo (1999), "Japanese", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–119, ISBN 978-0-52163751-0 <a href="https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_jpn_phon-2" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_jpn_phon-2</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:96"><p>Okada (1999), p. 118. - Okada, Hideo (1999), "Japanese", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117–119, ISBN 978-0-52163751-0 <a href="https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_jpn_phon-2" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_jpn_phon-2</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:97"><p>Chirkova & Chen (2013), p. 78. - Chirkova, Katia; Chen, Yiya (2013), "Lizu", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 75–86, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000242 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100312000242" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100312000242</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:98"><p>Chirkova & Chen (2013), p. 78. - Chirkova, Katia; Chen, Yiya (2013), "Lizu", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 75–86, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000242 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100312000242" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100312000242</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:99"><p>Vanvik (1979), pp. 13, 17. - Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 978-82-990584-0-7 <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:100"><p>While Vanvik (1979) does not describe the exact type of rounding of this vowel, some other sources (e.g. Haugen (1974:40) and Kristoffersen (2000:16)) state explicitly that it is compressed. - Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 978-82-990584-0-7 <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:101"><p>Vanvik (1979), p. 17. - Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 978-82-990584-0-7 <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:102"><p>Engstrand (1999), p. 140. - Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=33BSkFV_8PEC&pg=PA140" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=33BSkFV_8PEC&pg=PA140</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:103"><p>Rosenqvist (2007), p. 9. - Rosenqvist, Håkan (2007), Uttalsboken: svenskt uttal i praktik och teori, Stockholm: Natur & Kultur, ISBN 978-91-27-40645-2 <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:104"><p>Engstrand (1999), p. 140. - Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the usage of the International Phonetic Alphabet., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=33BSkFV_8PEC&pg=PA140" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=33BSkFV_8PEC&pg=PA140</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>