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Leaching (chemistry)
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<h2 id="leaching-processes">Leaching processes</h2> <p>There are many types of leaching scenarios; therefore, the extent of this topic is vast.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> In general, however, the three substances can be described as: </p> <ul><li>a carrier, substance A;</li> <li>a solute, substance B;</li> <li>and a solvent, substance C.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></li></ul> <p>Substance A and B are somewhat homogenous in a system prior to the introduction of substance C.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> At the beginning of the leaching process, substance C will work at dissolving the surficial substance B at a fairly high rate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> The rate of dissolution will decrease substantially once it needs to penetrate through the pores of substance A in order to continue targeting substance B.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> This penetration can often lead to dissolution of substance A,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> or the product of more than one solute,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> both unsatisfactory if specific leaching is desired. The physiochemical and biological properties of the carrier and solute should be considered when observing the leaching process, and certain properties may be more important depending on the material, the solvent, and their availability.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> These specific properties can include, but are not limited to: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Particle_size/KWwwGkn4">Particle size</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Solvent/LoMPMz8S">Solvent</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Temperature/QyGe4gmj">Temperature</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></li> <li>Agitation<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Surface_area/WNowzFCw">Surface area</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity/y84KQJxl">Homogeneity</a> of the carrier and solute<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Microorganism/pysJYcE2">Microorganism</a> activity<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Mineralogy/MeIK9lx9">Mineralogy</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a></li> <li>Intermediate products<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Crystal_structure/bJ4bCeHd">Crystal structure</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a></li></ul> <p>The general process is typically broken up and summarized into three parts:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p> <ol><li>Dissolution of surficial solute by solvent</li> <li><a href="/facts/Diffusion/KbAxroBa">Diffusion</a> of inner-solute through the pores of the carrier to reach the solvent</li> <li>Transfer of dissolved solute out of the system</li></ol> <h3>Leaching processes for biological substances</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Biology/1M1ee3pB">Biological</a> substances can experience leaching themselves,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> as well as be used for leaching as part of the solvent substance to recover <a href="/facts/Heavy_metals/Cblmy8qI">heavy metals</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> Many plants experience leaching of phenolics, <a href="/facts/Carbohydrate/Geuuzxsf">carbohydrates</a>, and <a href="/facts/Amino_acid/WDxYwBny">amino acids</a>, and can experience as much as 30% mass loss from leaching,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> just from sources of water such as <a href="/facts/Rain/MLqcQEyx">rain</a>, <a href="/facts/Dew/E8FktU0d">dew</a>, <a href="/facts/Mist/BywtmoJd">mist</a>, and <a href="/facts/Fog/mrIdyIc7">fog</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> These sources of water would be considered the solvent in the leaching process and can also lead to the leaching of <a href="/facts/Organic_compound/gqCNaN45">organic</a> nutrients from plants such as <a href="/facts/Free_sugars/Lfzc7R11">free sugars</a>, <a href="/facts/Pectic_acid/8qJaURvl">pectic</a> substances, and <a href="/facts/Sugar_alcohol/kV7Uul59">sugar alcohols</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> This can in turn lead to more diversity in plant species that may experience a more direct access to water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> This type of leaching can often lead to the removal of an undesirable component from the solid by water, this process is called washing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> A major concern for leaching of plants, is if <a href="/facts/Pesticide/Uhf4KnwJ">pesticides</a> are leached and carried through <a href="/facts/Stormwater_runoff/zPxoaA0D">stormwater runoff</a>,;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> this is not only necessary to plant health, but it is important to control because pesticides can be <a href="/facts/Toxicity/qa96rs60">toxic</a> to human and animal health.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Bioleaching/1FPuznKK">Bioleaching</a> is a term that describes the removal of metal <a href="/facts/Ion/3bePpDna">cations</a> from insoluble <a href="/facts/Ore/kgc9DssX">ores</a> by biological <a href="/facts/Oxidation/Pyd5RVcj">oxidation</a> and <a href="/facts/Complexation/1tCyeQUm">complexation</a> processes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> This process is done in most part to extract <a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">copper</a>, <a href="/facts/Cobalt/gqhScEw4">cobalt</a>, <a href="/facts/Nickel/KwMCHYRP">nickel</a>, <a href="/facts/Zinc/80b1qgk3">zinc</a>, and <a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">uranium</a> from insoluble <a href="/facts/Sulfide/d8YMjLeu">sulfides</a> or <a href="/facts/Oxide/DXtoVe1C">oxides</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> Bioleaching processes can also be used in the re-use of <a href="/facts/Fly_ash/RrPNlq9t">fly ash</a> by recovering <a href="/facts/Aluminium/7wmR8jYE">aluminum</a> using <a href="/facts/Sulfuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">sulfuric acid</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> </p> <h3>Leaching processes for fly ash</h3> <p>Coal fly ash is a product that experiences heavy amounts of leaching during disposal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> Though the re-use of fly ash in other materials such as concrete and bricks is encouraged, still much of it in the United States is disposed of in holding ponds, <a href="/facts/Lagoon/IBp4ez2D">lagoons</a>, <a href="/facts/Landfill/7K4efGgz">landfills</a>, and slag heaps.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> These disposal sites all contain water where washing effects can cause leaching of many different major <a href="/facts/Chemical_element/0jducgWD">elements</a>, depending on the type of fly ash and the location where it originated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> The leaching of fly ash is only concerning if the fly ash has not been disposed of properly, such as in the case of the <a href="/facts/Kingston_Fossil_Plant_coal_fly_ash_slurry_spill/uhmRoyoo">Kingston Fossil Plant</a> in <a href="/facts/Roane_County,_Tennessee/hmP8tA3w">Roane County</a>, Tennessee.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Tennessee_Valley_Authority/RgV7orV4">Tennessee Valley Authority</a> Kingston Fossil Plant structural failure lead to massive destruction throughout the area and serious levels of <a href="/facts/Contamination/RC0L7KRy">contamination</a> downstream to both <a href="/facts/Emory_River/JnoWRXI2">Emory River</a> and <a href="/facts/Clinch_River/o8a4Wfm4">Clinch River</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> </p> <h3>Leaching processes in soil</h3> <p>Leaching in <a href="/facts/Soil/5Ddpr3QM">soil</a> is highly dependent on the characteristics of the soil, which makes modeling efforts difficult.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> Most leaching comes from infiltration of water, a washing effect much like that described for the leaching process of biological substances.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> The leaching is typically described by solute transport models, such as <a href="/facts/Darcy%27s_law/VP9uYnyy">Darcy's Law</a>, <a href="/facts/Mass_flow_(life_sciences)/w2qq66Gb">mass flow</a> expressions, and <a href="/facts/Diffusion/KbAxroBa">diffusion</a>-dispersion understandings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> Leaching is controlled largely by the <a href="/facts/Hydraulic_conductivity/XMBD4Xdb">hydraulic conductivity</a> of the soil, which is dependent on <a href="/facts/Particle_size/KWwwGkn4">particle size</a> and <a href="/facts/Relative_density/ySquGd2x">relative density</a> that the soil has been consolidated to via stress.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> Diffusion is controlled by other factors such as pore size and soil skeleton, <a href="/facts/Tortuosity/oq0QNSUW">tortuosity</a> of flow path, and distribution of the solvent (water) and solutes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> </p> <h3>Leaching for mineral extraction</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Leaching_(metallurgy)/lkF9x75r">Leaching (metallurgy)</a></p> <p>Leaching can sometimes be used to extract valuable materials from a wastewater product/ raw materials. In the field of mineralogy, acid leaching is common to extract <a href="/facts/Metal/PT8hNX6R">Metals</a> such as vanadium, Cobalt, Nickel, Manganese, Iron etc. from raw materials/ reused materials.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> In recent years, there has been more attention given to metal leaching to recover precious metals from waste materials. For example, the extraction of valuable metals from wastewater.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="leaching-mechanisms">Leaching mechanisms</h2> <p>Due to the assortment of leaching processes there are many variations in the data to be collected through laboratory methods and modeling, making it hard to interpret the data itself.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> Not only is the specified leaching process important, but also the focus of the experimentation itself. For instance, the focus could be directed toward mechanisms causing leaching, <a href="/facts/Mineralogy/MeIK9lx9">mineralogy</a> as a group or individually, or the solvent that causes leaching.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> Most tests are done by evaluating mass loss due to a <a href="/facts/Reagent/c3GLInCu">reagent</a>, heat, or simply washing with water.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> A summary of various leaching processes and their respective laboratory tests can be viewed in the following table: </p> Table 1: Laboratory Tests for Various Leaching Processes<table><tbody><tr><th>Leaching process</th><th>Laboratory tests</th></tr><tr><td>Waste Leachate Removal</td><td>Batch Test or Column Test<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Leaching from Plants</td><td>t-test or permutation test<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Mobilization of Metal Cations</td><td>Bioleaching<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Leaching Fly Ash</td><td>Evaporation from Disposal Pond<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Cellular Extraction</td><td>Light Petroleum Fractions, Trichlorethylene Solvent, or Acetone/Ether Solvent<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Coarse Solids Leaching</td><td>Batch Plant<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Fine Solids Leaching</td><td>Agitation by Mechanical Stirrer or Compressed Air<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="environmentally-friendly-leaching">Environmentally friendly leaching</h2> <p>Some recent work has been done to see if organic acids can be used to leach <a href="/facts/Lithium/7vXX6BWA">lithium</a> and <a href="/facts/Cobalt/gqhScEw4">cobalt</a> from spent <a href="/facts/Battery_(electricity)/bqEpm4ue">batteries</a> with some success. Experiments performed with varying temperatures and concentrations of <a href="/facts/Malic_acid/mSbExe77">malic acid</a> show that the optimal conditions are 2.0 m/L of organic acid at a temperature of 90 °C.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> The reaction had an overall efficiency exceeding 90% with no harmful byproducts. </p> 4 LiCoO2(solid) + 12 C4H6O5(liquid) → 4 LiC4H5O5(liquid) + 4 Co(C4H6O5)2(liquid) + 6 H2O(liquid) + O2(gas) <p>The same analysis with <a href="/facts/Citric_acid/EgKGQBdl">citric acid</a> showed similar results with an optimal temperature and concentration of 90 °C and 1.5 molar solution of citric acid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Extraction_(chemistry)/Df7wExz9">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Leachate/zmUXV7Bb">Leachate</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Parboiling/e6sntqCj">Parboiling</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Surfactant_leaching/AzJE8Pz8">Surfactant leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sorption/nWDhtFkL">Sorption</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Weathering/uSYGlv0H">Weathering</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Richardson, J. F.; Harker, J. H.; Backhurst, J. R. (2002), Richardson, J. F.; Harker, J. H.; Backhurst, J. R. (eds.), "CHAPTER 10 - Leaching", Chemical Engineering (Fifth Edition), Chemical Engineering Series, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 502–541, doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-049064-9.50021-7, ISBN 9780080490649 <a href="9780080490649" target="_blank">9780080490649</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Richardson, J. F.; Harker, J. H.; Backhurst, J. R. (2002), Richardson, J. F.; Harker, J. H.; Backhurst, J. R. (eds.), "CHAPTER 10 - Leaching", Chemical Engineering (Fifth Edition), Chemical Engineering Series, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 502–541, doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-049064-9.50021-7, ISBN 9780080490649 <a href="9780080490649" target="_blank">9780080490649</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Tukey, H.B. (1970). "The Leaching of Substances from Plants". Annual Review of Plant Physiology. 21 (1): 305–324. doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.21.060170.001513. ISSN 0066-4294. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Dubus, I.G.; Beulke, S.; Brown, C.D. (2002). "Calibration of pesticide leaching models: critical review and guidance for reporting". Pest Management Science. 58 (8): 745–758. doi:10.1002/ps.526. ISSN 1526-4998. PMID 12192898. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Addiscott, T. M.; Wagenet, R. J. (1985). "Concepts of solute leaching in soils: a review of modelling approaches". Journal of Soil Science. 36 (3): 411–424. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2389.1985.tb00347.x. ISSN 1365-2389. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Bärlocher, Felix (2005), Graça, M.A.S.; Bärlocher, Felix; Gessner, M.O. (eds.), "CHAPTER 5 - Leaching", Methods to Study Litter Decomposition: A Practical Guide, Springer Netherlands, pp. 33–36, doi:10.1007/1-4020-3466-0_5, ISBN 9781402034664 <a href="9781402034664" target="_blank">9781402034664</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Richardson, J. F.; Harker, J. H.; Backhurst, J. R. (2002), Richardson, J. F.; Harker, J. H.; Backhurst, J. R. (eds.), "CHAPTER 10 - Leaching", Chemical Engineering (Fifth Edition), Chemical Engineering Series, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 502–541, doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-049064-9.50021-7, ISBN 9780080490649 <a href="9780080490649" target="_blank">9780080490649</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Rohwerder, T.; Gehrke, T.; Kinzler, K.; Sand, W. (2003). "Bioleaching review part A: Progress in bioleaching: Fundamentals and mechanisms of bacterial metal sulfide oxidation". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 63 (3): 239–248. doi:10.1007/s00253-003-1448-7. ISSN 1432-0614. PMID 14566432. S2CID 25547087. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Iyer, R. (2002). "The surface chemistry of leaching coal fly ash". Journal of Hazardous Materials. 93 (3): 321–329. Bibcode:2002JHzM...93..321I. doi:10.1016/S0304-3894(02)00049-3. ISSN 0304-3894. PMID 12137992. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Peelman, S.; Sun, Z.H.I.; Sietsma, J.; Yang, Y. (2016), "CHAPTER 21 - Leaching of Rare Earth Elements: Review of Past and Present Technologies", Rare Earths Industry, Elsevier, pp. 319–334, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-802328-0.00021-8, ISBN 9780128023280, retrieved 2019-10-17 <a href="9780128023280" target="_blank">9780128023280</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Tukey, H.B. (1970). "The Leaching of Substances from Plants". Annual Review of Plant Physiology. 21 (1): 305–324. doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.21.060170.001513. ISSN 0066-4294. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Richardson, J. F.; Harker, J. H.; Backhurst, J. R. (2002), Richardson, J. F.; Harker, J. H.; Backhurst, J. R. (eds.), "CHAPTER 10 - Leaching", Chemical Engineering (Fifth Edition), Chemical Engineering Series, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 502–541, doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-049064-9.50021-7, ISBN 9780080490649 <a href="9780080490649" target="_blank">9780080490649</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Rohwerder, T.; Gehrke, T.; Kinzler, K.; Sand, W. (2003). "Bioleaching review part A: Progress in bioleaching: Fundamentals and mechanisms of bacterial metal sulfide oxidation". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 63 (3): 239–248. doi:10.1007/s00253-003-1448-7. ISSN 1432-0614. PMID 14566432. S2CID 25547087. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Perket, C.L.; Webster, W.C. (1981). "Literature Review of Batch Laboratory Leaching and Extraction Procedures". In Conway, R.; Malloy, B. (eds.). Hazardous Solid Waste Testing: First Conference. (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International 1981): ASTM. pp. 7–7–21. doi:10.1520/stp28826s. ISBN 978-0-8031-0795-3. ISSN 1040-3094 – via in Hazardous Solid Waste Testing: First Conference. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location (link) <a href="978-0-8031-0795-3" target="_blank">978-0-8031-0795-3</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Richardson, J. F.; Harker, J. H.; Backhurst, J. R. (2002), Richardson, J. F.; Harker, J. H.; Backhurst, J. R. (eds.), "CHAPTER 10 - Leaching", Chemical Engineering (Fifth Edition), Chemical Engineering Series, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 502–541, doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-049064-9.50021-7, ISBN 9780080490649 <a href="9780080490649" target="_blank">9780080490649</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Dubus, I.G.; Beulke, S.; Brown, C.D. (2002). "Calibration of pesticide leaching models: critical review and guidance for reporting". Pest Management Science. 58 (8): 745–758. doi:10.1002/ps.526. ISSN 1526-4998. PMID 12192898. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Perket, C.L.; Webster, W.C. (1981). "Literature Review of Batch Laboratory Leaching and Extraction Procedures". In Conway, R.; Malloy, B. (eds.). Hazardous Solid Waste Testing: First Conference. (West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International 1981): ASTM. pp. 7–7–21. doi:10.1520/stp28826s. ISBN 978-0-8031-0795-3. ISSN 1040-3094 – via in Hazardous Solid Waste Testing: First Conference. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location (link) <a href="978-0-8031-0795-3" target="_blank">978-0-8031-0795-3</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Richardson, J. F.; Harker, J. H.; Backhurst, J. R. 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