Muscadet

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
The wine-growing tradition in the region where Muscadet is produced dates from an edict of the <a href="/facts/Roman_emperor/sT4nFc67">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/facts/Marcus_Aurelius_Probus/ttbcs7bR">Probus</a> who had the first vineyards planted by soldiers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a>
The exact origins of Muscadet wine, and its association with the Melon de Bourgogne grape, is not clear. One estate near Nantes, Château de la Cassemichère, claims that the first Melon de Bourgogne vines used to make Muscadet were transported from <a href="/facts/Burgundy_(wine)/8E7HDx2a">Burgundy</a> and planted in their vineyards in 1740.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> However, most <a href="/facts/Ampelography/e10bhpgr">ampelographers</a> believe that the Melon de Bourgogne grape was introduced to the Pays Nantais region in the 17th century by Dutch trader looking for a sufficient source of neutral, white wines that could be distilled into <a href="/facts/Brandewijn/8MIwYLH2">brandewijn</a>. Following the deep freeze of 1709, most of the red grape varieties were severely damaged and replaced by the hardier Melon de Bourgogne.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> The French ampelographer <a href="/facts/Pierre_Galet/YB7rI2ST">Pierre Galet</a> found evidence that following that deep freeze, King <a href="/facts/Louis_XIV/2LseeIlj">Louis XIV</a> ordered the replanting himself with a grape called Muscadent blanc that was most likely the Melon de Bourgogne.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>
By the 20th century, Muscadet began to fall out of favor in the global wine market and earned a reputation for being homogenous and simple. The late 20th century saw a revival in the Muscadet region as ambitious wine producers experimented with new <a href="/facts/Winemaking/ITBb0gpf">winemaking</a> techniques aimed at bringing out more flavor and complexity in the wine. The 1980s saw a rise in use of <a href="/facts/Oak_(wine)/WvLFtNon">oak barrel</a> <a href="/facts/Fermentation_(wine)/eS6uKKqQ">fermentation</a> and <a href="/facts/Lees_(wine)/yDwslU1l">lees</a> stirring while the 1990s introduced the widespread use of extended skin-contact (<a href="/facts/Maceration_(wine)/bjqUzt3H">maceration</a>) prior to fermentation. By the 20th century, the use of these techniques created a wide range of styles and quality of Muscadet wine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a>

<h2 id="climate-and-geography">Climate and geography</h2>
 
The Muscadet growing region lies at the far western reaches of the Loire Valley and is dominated by <a href="/facts/Maritime_influences_(wine)/3shtdEGg">maritime influences</a> of the nearby <a href="/facts/Atlantic_Ocean/EI4uChIb">Atlantic Ocean</a>. The ocean's influence makes the climate of the Muscadet region cooler than the rest of the Loire Valley with more precipitation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> Wine expert Tom Stevenson notes that the city of Nantes serves as a shield, protecting the region from northwesterly winds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> However the closest vineyards to the city in the village of <a href="/facts/Vertou/sGXb8hdE">Vertou</a> are located over 9.5 km from the city center and at higher elevation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> Winters have the potential to be harsh with deep freezes common and threatening all the way into early spring.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>
Vineyards in the Muscadet region are scattered across a wide range of <a href="/facts/Terroir/vCL8F7HX">terroirs</a> ranging from gentle slopes near the rivers to rolling hills to flat fertile land near the mouth of the Loire river. The most ideally situated vineyards are in the rolling hills Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine sub-appellation located south and east of Nantes. The soil in this area is rich in <a href="/facts/Magnesium/XyIhd2FG">magnesium</a> and <a href="/facts/Potassium/FWPwS7Rj">potassium</a>, made up of <a href="/facts/Clay/xnwouEkB">clay</a>, <a href="/facts/Gravel/IwHG9JfI">gravel</a> and <a href="/facts/Sand/MdTIt0M8">sand</a> above <a href="/facts/Subsoil/URWLX60v">subsoils</a> of <a href="/facts/Gneiss/rUJYgBHu">gneiss</a>, <a href="/facts/Schist/jHBjtEQw">schist</a>, <a href="/facts/Granite/G2evuVKo">granite</a> and <a href="/facts/Volcanic/c2M5upml">volcanic</a> rock. Throughout the Muscadet region the soils drain well, which is a necessity in a region as damp as the Pays Nantais. In the broader, generic Muscadet AOC (<a href="/facts/Appellation_d%27Origine_Contr%C3%B4l%C3%A9e/pNUzSKwU">Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée</a>) the soil is predominantly <a href="/facts/Silt/HAxJkhDP">silt</a> and <a href="/facts/Sand/MdTIt0M8">sand</a> while the soils of the Muscadet-Coteaux de la Loire has high concentration of schist and the Muscadet-Côtes de Grandlieu sub-appellation has a mixture of granite and schist based soils.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>

<h2 id="appellations">Appellations</h2>
There are four main appellations of the Muscadet region. At the lowest level is the umbrella <a href="/facts/Appellation_d%27origine_contr%C3%B4l%C3%A9e/pNUzSKwU">AOC</a> Muscadet which covers the entire 32,000 acres (13,000 hectares) region. Wine expert <a href="/facts/Jancis_Robinson/XI5sr3PM">Jancis Robinson</a> notes that wines carrying this basic designation are normally the most simple examples of Muscadet. Since the late 1990s, this level has been excluded from using <a href="/facts/Sur_lie/yDwslU1l">sur lie</a> aging by AOC regulations. Next come the three sub-appellations representing different micro-climates of the region: Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine; Muscadet-Coteaux de la Loire, which includes the northernmost expanse of the area; and Muscadet-Côtes de Grandlieu, which is located in the southwestern area around the eponymous lake.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> As the most northern sub-appellation, the quality of wines from the Muscadet-Coteaux de la Loire can vary greatly depending on the vintage. In cooler years the grapes struggle to <a href="/facts/Ripen_(wine)/KrFE6W7m">ripen</a> and tend not to have the fruit to balance the acidity. In warmer years, this area tends to produce the most balanced wines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> Muscadet-Côtes de Grandlieu is the most recent AOC promotion, gaining its status in 1996.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> Prior to gaining its own sub-appellation, this region was responsible for nearly three-quarters of the wine labeled as basic Muscadet AOC. Well made examples from Muscadet-Côtes de Grandlieu are characterized by floral <a href="/facts/Bouquet_(wine)/S0h7e9By">bouquet</a> and <a href="/facts/Minerality/w3q6ASSm">minerality</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>
The Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine sub-appellation is the most productive and notable region of Muscadet, producing more than three-quarters of the region's entire production. (In contrast, the Muscadet-Coteaux de la Loire AOC only produces around 20% of the amount of wine of Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>) In fact, more AOC Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine is produced on a yearly basis than in any other single AOC in the entire <a href="/facts/Loire_Valley/oLwxnjYR">Loire Valley</a>. The appellation is located east and south around the city of Nantes and is named after the rivers <a href="/facts/S%C3%A8vre_Nantaise/YtXK32eB">Sèvre</a> and <a href="/facts/Maine-et-Loire/nKHenUBj">Maine</a> that flow through it. <a href="/facts/Vineyard_soil/UG5TCyoT">Vineyard soil</a> composition varies throughout the region and can range from the <a href="/facts/Granite/G2evuVKo">granite</a> and <a href="/facts/Schist/jHBjtEQw">schist</a> hillsides around the village of <a href="/facts/Saint-Fiacre-sur-Maine/Lvqd5fVk">Saint-Fiacre-sur-Maine</a> to the predominantly <a href="/facts/Clay/xnwouEkB">clay</a> based soils of <a href="/facts/Vallet/hnGasJse">Vallet</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> The most ideally situated vineyards are located around the villages of <a href="/facts/La_Chapelle-Heulin/13JP2CUv">La Chapelle-Heulin</a>, St-Fiacre, Vallet and <a href="/facts/Vertou/sGXb8hdE">Vertou</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> Around 45% of the wine made Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine is aged sur lie. The wines made in this style tend to be slightly fuller body and can have some of the texture and mouthfeel of a white <a href="/facts/Bourgogne_AOC/8E7HDx2a">Bourgogne AOC</a>. Well made examples will have a balance of fruit, acidity and texture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>

<h2 id="viticulture">Viticulture</h2>

The most common <a href="/facts/Viticultural/oHWsKvuQ">viticultural</a> hazards in the Muscadet region are seasonal frost and <a href="/facts/Mildew/wVos4nxG">mildew</a> near <a href="/facts/Harvest/a4Lywf6p">harvest</a>. The Melon de Bourgogne has adapted well to these condition being very frost resistant and capable of ripening early. Harvest usually takes place in mid to late September but in recent years producers have been experimented with harvesting the grapes several days to a couple weeks later. The traditional method is to harvest early in order to maintain <a href="/facts/Acidity_(wine)/lIF43ur4">acidity</a> that is a key characteristic of Muscadet wine. The trend to pick later, and risk the threat of rains and mildew rot, is to give the grapes more time to develop <a href="/facts/Sugars_(wine)/XM70XnMA">sugars</a> and riper <a href="/facts/Phenols_(wine)/aAnro4Va">phenols</a> that can impart more fruit notes and complexity to the wine. However, these grapes that are picked later will usually experience a dramatic drop in acidity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a>

<h2 id="winemaking">Winemaking</h2>
The <a href="/facts/Grape_variety/Uv1dzGHn">grape variety</a> used to produce Muscadet, Melon de Bourgogne, is a relatively neutral grape. Winemaking techniques have evolved in the region to adapt to the grape's limitation and bring out more flavor and complexity. The most well-known of these techniques is sur lie aging, where the wine stays in contact with the dead <a href="/facts/Yeast_(wine)/0lsmIgHH">yeast</a> cells left over after fermentation (the <a href="/facts/Lees_(wine)/yDwslU1l">lees</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> The technique was discovered, almost accidentally, in the early 20th century. Traditionally Muscadet producers would set aside a barrel of wine for special occasions, such as a family <a href="/facts/Wedding/9UfjkTDk">wedding</a>. This "honeymoon barrel", as it became known, would take on more flavor and texture due to its contact with the lees.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> Through this process, <a href="/facts/Autolysis_(wine)/luvBXJcs">autolysis</a> occurs which contributes to a creamy <a href="/facts/Mouthfeel/rBy2P0Sg">mouthfeel</a> that may make the wine seem to have a <a href="/facts/Body_(wine)/w3q6ASSm">fuller body</a>. The release of <a href="/facts/Enzymes/DSI1Fh7y">enzymes</a> during this process inhibits <a href="/facts/Oxidation/Pyd5RVcj">oxidation</a> which may also improve the <a href="/facts/Aging_potential_(wine)/XbED9wLM">aging potential</a> of the wine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> During this process, the wine is usually not <a href="/facts/Racked_(wine)/mlUqKtkb">racked</a> for several months. While in many wines, the lack of racking could have the undesired consequences of developing off flavors or other <a href="/facts/Wine_faults/XmWUxr7e">wine faults</a>. However, the relative neutrality of the Melon de Bourgogne grape works in the favor of the Muscadet wine and poses minimal risk to developing off flavors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a>

The late 20th century saw a wave of winemaking innovation and the popularization of several winemaking techniques. The mid-1980s saw increased usage of oak barrels for fermentation over stainless steel fermenting tanks. The process of stirring the lees (bâtonnage) also became more commonplace.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> By stirring the lees, the dead yeast come into greater contact with the wood-based <a href="/facts/Tannin_(wine)/aAnro4Va">tannins</a> and <a href="/facts/Pigment/I3clCYkF">pigments</a> that are usually extracted into the wine. The lees act as a sort of buffer between the wines and the oak elements, allowing the wine to maintain its color and not become too harsh and tannic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> In the late 1990s, more Muscadet producers started extending the amount of time that the must spends in contact with the grape skins prior to fermentation. This extended maceration allowed the wine to leach more <a href="/facts/Phenolic_compounds_(wine)/aAnro4Va">phenolic compounds</a> from the skin which can add complexity to the wine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>
Muscadet wines are usually bottled in the spring or autumn following the <a href="/facts/Vintage/x7DeqgDX">vintage</a> though they can be made in the <a href="/facts/Vins_de_primeur/sTBDGI2Y">vins de primeur</a> style (like a <a href="/facts/Beaujolais_nouveau/y9DfR7sD">Beaujolais nouveau</a>) and be released as early as the third Thursday of November.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> At time of bottling some <a href="/facts/Carbon_dioxide/xGzpppEp">carbon dioxide</a> may still be present in the wine, giving it a slight <a href="/facts/Effervescence/sT0J1Vew">effervescence</a> that can come across as a "prickly" sensation to the tongue. This effervescence is rarely seen to the degree of a <a href="/facts/Semi-sparkling/YwkC2KgX">semi-sparkling</a> wine such as <a href="/facts/Lambrusco/Ygs7MI5m">Lambrusco</a>. Under French AOC regulations, the maximum <a href="/facts/Alcohol_content/FeFdzl8v">alcohol content</a> of a Muscadet must be no more than 12% (after <a href="/facts/Chaptalization/63T5wN1A">chaptalization</a>)-making it the only un<a href="/facts/Fortified_(wine)/3D5D1aGt">fortified</a> French wine to have a maximum alcohol content stipulation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a>

<h3>Sur lie on the wine label</h3>

Prior to the early 1990s, any producer of Muscadet wine could use the phrase sur lie on their <a href="/facts/Wine_label/uPVSXylE">wine labels</a> regardless of the length of time and manner that it actually spent in contact with the lees. In 1994, French authorities designed regulations that limit the use of sur lie to only wines that comply with a set guideline. First, while the sub-appellations of Muscadet-Sèvre et Maine, Muscadet-Coteaux de la Loire and Muscadet-Côtes de Grandlieu are permitted to use the term, any wine labeled with just the generic AOC Muscadet cannot. Second, the wine must spend at least a full winter in contact with the lees and not be bottled until after the third week of March following the harvest. Some wines are kept in contact longer, in order to produce a more full-bodied style, and not bottled till between mid-October to mid-November. Finally the wine must be bottled directly off its lees and not go through any racking or <a href="/facts/Filtration_(wine)/6ymTW7NS">filtration</a> process. Currently there is no regulation on the size or type of vessel that the wine should be kept in sur lie with. There is a movement among some Muscadet producers to limit the practice to just that done in standard-sized oak barrels, but currently any size barrel or even stainless steel fermentation tanks are allowed to age a wine sur lie and label it accordingly.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a>

<h2 id="wine-industry">Wine industry</h2>

At the turn of the 21st century there were over 2,500 vineyards in the Muscadet region tended mostly as small lots by individual farmers who either commercialize their own wine<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> or sell their grapes to one of the forty plus <a href="/facts/N%C3%A9gociant/7Gp6z2Nj">négociants</a> in the region. These négociants would blend and bottle the wine under their own label.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a>

<h2 id="grapes">Grapes</h2>
Historically, the only grape variety permitted in any of the AOC Muscadet was <a href="/facts/Melon_de_Bourgogne/z1t6h6g3">Melon de Bourgogne</a>. The grape was once prevalent in the <a href="/facts/Burgundy_wine/8E7HDx2a">Burgundy wine</a> region but was eventually prohibited in the region by French authorities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> Introduced by Dutch wine traders in the 17th century, the grape came to thrive in the cool, mild climate of the Pays Nantais. 
Since 2018, the INAO now allows up to 10% Chardonnay to be used in Muscadet AOC (but not in regionally or village labeled Muscadets (e.g. Sevre et Maine). <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a>
Other varieties are grown in the region-such as <a href="/facts/Folle_blanche/3kAtKNBM">Folle blanche</a>, <a href="/facts/Cabernet_franc/qQVpL0zx">Cabernet franc</a>, <a href="/facts/Gamay/GxrUHsPy">Gamay</a>, <a href="/facts/Cabernet_Sauvignon/jIXCqHRP">Cabernet Sauvignon</a>, <a href="/facts/Pinot_noir/MBsmYWjS">Pinot noir</a> and <a href="/facts/Chenin_blanc/CSvsmMxY">Chenin blanc</a>, <a href="/facts/Pinot_gris/VFksjUrh">Pinot gris</a>, <a href="/facts/Groslot/p0R8HGP7">Groslot</a>, and <a href="/facts/N%C3%A9grette/lxNf5m8f">Négrette</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a>-but must be used under different designations such as the <a href="/facts/Vin_D%C3%A9limit%C3%A9_de_Qualit%C3%A9_Sup%C3%A9rieure/IzSuHCFk">Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure</a> (VDQS) wines of Coteaux d'Ancenis, Fiefs Vendéens<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> or Gros Plant du Pays Nantais.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a>

<h2 id="wines">Wines</h2>
Muscadet wines are often light bodied and almost always <a href="/facts/Dry_(wine)/w3q6ASSm">dry</a> with very little, if any <a href="/facts/Residual_sugar/wWP4PR42">residual sugar</a>. The AOP (<a href="/facts/Appellation_d%27Origine_Prot%C3%A9g%C3%A9e/N1rGnRa9">Appellation d'Origine Protégée</a>) states that the wine may not have residual sugar above 5 grams per liter for Blanc and above 3 grams of sugar per liter for Blanc "Sur Lie." Left over carbon dioxide from the bottling process can leave the wines with a slight "prickly" sensation. <a href="/facts/Master_of_Wine/oA2lPJAe">Master of Wine</a> <a href="/facts/Mary_Ewing-Mulligan/cnBl4rtU">Mary Ewing-Mulligan</a> describes Muscadets as fresh and crisp, at their peak drinking ability from release up to three years of age.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> Muscadet that have been aged sur lie can have very subtle "yeasty" aromas. The acidity keeps the wines light and refreshing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> Some examples can have a slight "<a href="/facts/Saltiness/mdB8ysuK">saltiness</a>" about them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a>

<h3>Food pairing</h3>

The classic <a href="/facts/Food_and_wine_pairings/qJ5aUjrQ">food and wine pairings</a> in the Pays Nantais region is of Muscadet with the local <a href="/facts/Seafood/geXBKfzJ">seafood</a>, particularly <a href="/facts/Oysters/ctvJgcks">oysters</a>. Other seafood dishes with which Muscadet pairs well include <a href="/facts/Lobster/c5eYu72w">lobster</a>, <a href="/facts/Shrimp/QeWUDe2b">shrimp</a> and <a href="/facts/Mullet_(fish)/zjEod6Yx">mullet</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> <a href="/facts/San_Francisco_Chronicle/HV7h1xrr">San Francisco Chronicle</a> wine editor <a href="/facts/Jon_Bonn%C3%A9/fE8EW1Ds">Jon Bonné</a> called Muscadet "the perfect oyster wine".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> The moderate alcohol level of Muscadet allows it to complement many types of dishes without overwhelming them. The light, crisp acidity can "cut through" (meaning it stands out against) rich, creamy dishes which can be a refreshing change of pace for the <a href="/facts/Palate/o0RMlkss">palate</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a>

<h3>Cellaring and service</h3>
Most Muscadets should be drunk within three years of production. There are, however, some exceptions to this rule. Depending upon the soils upon which they are produced and vinification, some Muscadets can have an <a href="/facts/Aging_wine/XbED9wLM">aging</a> potential of up to and exceeding ten years. The organisation responsible in France for promoting Loire Valley wines suggests that Muscadet should be served at between 9 and 11 °C (48 and 52 °F).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/List_of_Vins_de_Primeur/9d0uacdx">List of Vins de Primeur</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Johnson, Hugh (1989). Vintage: The Story of Wine. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 175–80. ISBN 0-671-68702-6. <a href="0-671-68702-6" target="_blank">0-671-68702-6</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">"INAO - Institut National de l'Origine et de la qualité" (PDF). INAO. [dead link‍] <a href="http://www.inao.gouv.fr/repository/editeur/pdf/CDCHomologues0708/CDCMUSCADETv1homologation.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.inao.gouv.fr/repository/editeur/pdf/CDCHomologues0708/CDCMUSCADETv1homologation.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Culinaire Saisonnier, hiver 2006/07 <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">"Loire Valley Wine Guide: The Nantais". Archived from the original on 2006-06-18. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060618184420/http://www.thewinedoctor.com/regionalguides/loirenantais.shtml" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20060618184420/http://www.thewinedoctor.com/regionalguides/loirenantais.shtml</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition pg 463 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition pg 463 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">E. McCarthy & M. Ewing-Mulligan "French Wine for Dummies" pg 210-211 Wiley Publishing 2001 ISBN 0-7645-5354-2 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">"Distance from nantes to vertou - Wolfram|Alpha". <a href="http://www96.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=distance+from+nantes+to+vertou" target="_blank">http://www96.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=distance+from+nantes+to+vertou</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">"GeoNames.org". <a href="http://www.geonames.org/2969612/vertou.html" target="_blank">http://www.geonames.org/2969612/vertou.html</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition pg 463 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">E. McCarthy & M. Ewing-Mulligan "French Wine for Dummies" pg 210-211 Wiley Publishing 2001 ISBN 0-7645-5354-2 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">E. McCarthy & M. Ewing-Mulligan "French Wine for Dummies" pg 210-211 Wiley Publishing 2001 ISBN 0-7645-5354-2 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition pg 463 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">H. Johnson & J. Robinson The World Atlas of Wine pg 116 Mitchell Beazley Publishing 2005 ISBN 1-84000-332-4 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition pg 463 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">K. MacNeil The Wine Bible pg 262-263 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1-56305-434-5 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 54 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition pg 463 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition pg 463 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 399 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition pg 463 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition pg 463 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">"Loire - vendee rechercher vigneron indépendant vignerons indépendants vins vin france bordeaux champagne CNCP caves particulières". Archived from the original on 2009-05-14. Retrieved 2009-05-26. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090514001025/http://www.vigneron-independant.com/annuaire_federation.php?coderegion=6" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090514001025/http://www.vigneron-independant.com/annuaire_federation.php?coderegion=6</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">K. MacNeil The Wine Bible pg 262-263 Workman Publishing 2001 ISBN 1-56305-434-5 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">E. McCarthy & M. Ewing-Mulligan "French Wine for Dummies" pg 210-211 Wiley Publishing 2001 ISBN 0-7645-5354-2 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">https://info.agriculture.gouv.fr/gedei/site/bo-agri/document_administratif-497a508a-fdab-431a-8eee-d02c2b871c12/telechargement <a href="https://info.agriculture.gouv.fr/gedei/site/bo-agri/document_administratif-497a508a-fdab-431a-8eee-d02c2b871c12/telechargement" target="_blank">https://info.agriculture.gouv.fr/gedei/site/bo-agri/document_administratif-497a508a-fdab-431a-8eee-d02c2b871c12/telechargement</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Stevenson, Tom (2005). The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia. London & New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 200–01. ISBN 0-7566-1324-8. <a href="0-7566-1324-8" target="_blank">0-7566-1324-8</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition pg 463 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2008-11-13. Retrieved 2009-05-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081113202352/http://www.vinsdeloire.fr/vins_vdl/fiche_aoc.aspx?ID=BFC47018-60B3-4B5D-87F3-5D7B9251A47D" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20081113202352/http://www.vinsdeloire.fr/vins_vdl/fiche_aoc.aspx?ID=BFC47018-60B3-4B5D-87F3-5D7B9251A47D</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">E. McCarthy & M. Ewing-Mulligan "French Wine for Dummies" pg 210-211 Wiley Publishing 2001 ISBN 0-7645-5354-2 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">A. Domine (ed.) Wine, pp. 220, Ullmann Publishing, 2008 ISBN 978-3-8331-4611-4 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">H. Johnson & J. Robinson The World Atlas of Wine pg 116 Mitchell Beazley Publishing 2005 ISBN 1-84000-332-4 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">H. Johnson & J. Robinson The World Atlas of Wine pg 116 Mitchell Beazley Publishing 2005 ISBN 1-84000-332-4 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">O. Wu "New, old worlds your oyster when pairing wine" San Francisco Chronicle, September 28th, 2007 <a href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/09/28/WIBJS9H5L.DTL&type=wine" target="_blank">http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/09/28/WIBJS9H5L.DTL&type=wine</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">E. Deitch "Why you should pour a Muscadet tonight" MSNBC, April 11th 2008 <a href="https://www.today.com/food/why-you-should-pour-muscadet-tonight-wbna24070789" target="_blank">https://www.today.com/food/why-you-should-pour-muscadet-tonight-wbna24070789</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Vins de Loire <a href="https://archive.today/20130213174616/http://www.vinsdeloire.fr/en_EN/vins_vdl/fiche_aoc.aspx?ID=6744BE9D-CC46-43AB-9630-7C8BCA8DAAD3" target="_blank">https://archive.today/20130213174616/http://www.vinsdeloire.fr/en_EN/vins_vdl/fiche_aoc.aspx?ID=6744BE9D-CC46-43AB-9630-7C8BCA8DAAD3</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Muscadet open-in-new

Muscadet