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Aqidah
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<h2 id="etymology">Etymology</h2> <p><i>Aqidah</i> comes from the <a href="/facts/Semitic_root/S73FvfPz">Semitic root</a> <i>ʿ-q-d</i>, which means "to tie; knot".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> ("Aqidah" used not only as an expression of a school of Islamic theology or belief system, but as another word for "theology" in Islam, as in: "Theology (Aqidah) covers all beliefs and belief systems of Muslims, including sectarian differences and points of contention".)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="introduction">Introduction</h2> <p>According to Muslim scholar Cyril Glasse, "systematic statements of belief became necessary, from early [on in the history of] Islam, initially to refute heresies, and later to distinguish points of view and to present them, as the divergences of schools of theology or opinion increased."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p><p>The "first" creed written as "a short answer to the pressing heresies of the time" is known as <i>Fiqh Akbar</i> and ascribed to <a href="/facts/Abu_Hanifa/Ij7MdbW5">Abu Hanifa</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Two creeds were the <i>Fiqh Akbar II</i> "representative" of the <a href="/facts/Ash%2527ari/Rj57d1HI">Ash'ari</a>, and <i>Fiqh Akbar III</i>, "representative" of the <a href="/facts/Shafi%2527i/tE6xsQxj">Shafi'i</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Al-Ghazali/haPCCftt">Al-Ghazali</a> also had an <i>aqidah</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> These creeds were more detailed than those described below. </p><p>According to Malcolm Clark, while Islam "is not a creedal religion", it has produced some detailed creeds, "some containing 100 or more belief statements" that summarized "the theological position of a particular scholar or school."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h3>Six articles of belief</h3> <p>The six articles of faith or belief (Arkan al-Iman) derived from the <a href="/facts/Quran/39rkStko">Quran</a> and <a href="/facts/Sunnah/fmXN1E1q">Sunnah</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> are accepted by all Muslims. While there are differences between <a href="/facts/Shia_Islam/JIQl7ooz">Shia</a> and <a href="/facts/Sunni_Islam/WYo0zeq0">Sunni Islam</a> and other different schools or sects concerning issues such as the attributes of God or about the purpose of angels, the six articles are not disputed. </p><p>The six Sunni articles of belief are: </p> <ol><li>Belief in <a href="/facts/God_in_Islam/L2VNNRJm">God</a> and <i><a href="/facts/Tawhid/Svh5hgTS">tawhid</a></i></li> <li>Belief in the <a href="/facts/Islamic_view_of_angels/GjIhXyaK">angels</a></li> <li>Belief in the <a href="/facts/Islamic_holy_books/55nIK4Vh">Islamic holy books</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></li> <li>Belief in the <a href="/facts/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam/WPWy6Gdp">prophets and messengers</a></li> <li>Belief in the <a href="/facts/Last_Judgment/x5dW2R4x">Last Judgment</a> and <a href="/facts/Resurrection/XQCQqA0M">Resurrection</a></li> <li>Belief in <a href="/facts/Predestination_in_Islam/bl0VS10u">predestination</a></li></ol> <p>The first five are based on several Qurʾanic beliefs: </p> ...righteous is he who believeth in God and the Last Day and the angels and the scripture and the prophets (2:177) ...believer believe in God and His angels and His scriptures and His messengers (2:285) Whoever disbelieveth in God and His angels and His scriptures and His messengers and the Last Day, he verily wandered far stray (4:136) Who is an enemy of God, His Angels, His Messengers, Gabriel and Michael! Then, lo! God is an enemy to the disbelievers (2:98) <p>The sixth point made it into the creed because of the first theological controversy in Islam. Although not connected with the Sunni-Shiʿi controversy about the succession, the majority of Twelver Shiʿites do not stress God's limitless power (qadar), but rather His boundless justice (<a href="/facts/Adl/c9kvKtgv">ʿadl</a>) as the sixth point of belief – this does not mean that Sunnis deny His justice, or Shiʿites negate His power, just that the emphasis is different. </p><p>In Sunni and Shia view, having <i><a href="/facts/Iman_(concept)/gtEG6MFP">Iman</a></i> literally means having belief in the six articles. </p> <h3>Tawhid</h3> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Rabb/VMRWTCfP">Rabb</a>, <a href="/facts/Ilah/uvXzRoun">Ilah</a>, and <a href="/facts/Names_of_God_in_Islam/WncGGL9n">Names of God in Islam</a></p> <p><i><a href="/facts/Tawhid/Svh5hgTS">Tawhid</a></i> ("doctrine of Oneness") is the religion's most fundamental concept and holds that <i>Allah</i> (the Arabic word for God) is one (<i>aḥad</i>), unique (<i>wāḥid</i>), and the only being worthy of worship. The Quran teaches the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world—a unique, independent and indivisible being who is independent of the entire creation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> God, according to Islam, is a <a href="/facts/Universalism/KWh6A8Cl">universal</a> God, rather than a local, tribal, or parochial one, and is an absolute who integrates all affirmative values.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p> <h3>Iman</h3> <p>Iman, in Islamic theology denotes a believer's faith in the metaphysical aspects of <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Its most simple definition is the belief in <a href="/facts/Iman_(concept)/gtEG6MFP">the six articles of faith</a>, known as <i>arkān al-īmān</i>. </p> <h2 id="hadith-of-gabriel">Hadith of Gabriel</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/Hadith_of_Gabriel/ya2TDDKn">Hadith of Gabriel</a> includes the <a href="/facts/Five_Pillars_of_Islam/LmdL77oJ">Five Pillars of Islam</a> (<a href="/facts/Tawhid/Svh5hgTS">Tawhid</a>, <a href="/facts/Salat/XqKPp3vL">Salat</a>, <a href="/facts/Sawm/bYpG2Vn8">Sawm</a>, <a href="/facts/Zakat/yLQ4Mygk">Zakat</a>, <a href="/facts/Hajj/eDC5AalN">Hajj</a>) in answer to the question, "O messenger of God, what is Islam?" This hadith is sometimes called the "truly first and most fundamental creed."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p> <h3>Salat</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Salat/XqKPp3vL">Salat</a> is an act of worship. Salat means to call to the Lord Who created and gives life to the worshipper in Islam. This call realizes one to surrender caller's will, obeying his God. It is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Islam gives concession conditionally if it is difficult to pray Salat in formal ways. People who find it physically difficult can perform Salat in a way suitable to them. To perform valid Salat, Muslims must be in a state of ritual purity, which is mainly achieved by ritual wash ups, (wuḍūʾ), as per prescribed procedures. Salat consists of "standing" (Qiyam) intending to call God, bow at knees (Ruku) meaning to ready to obey, prostrate (Sajda) willing to surrender worshipper's will to God's, then to sit (Tashhud) asserting evidence of the oneness of God and the finality of God's apostle (Nabi). </p> <h3>Sawm</h3> <p>In the terminology of <a href="/facts/Sharia/H9cG0yCF">Islamic law</a>, <i><a href="/facts/Sawm/bYpG2Vn8">sawm</a></i> means to abstain from eating, drinking (including water) and sexual intercourse from dawn until dusk. The observance of <i>sawm</i> during the holy month of <a href="/facts/Ramadan/eBpGEkst">Ramadan</a> is one of the <a href="/facts/Five_Pillars_of_Islam/LmdL77oJ">Five Pillars of Islam</a>, but is not confined to that month. </p> <h3>Zakat</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Zakat/yLQ4Mygk">Zakat</a> is the practice of charitable giving by Muslims based on accumulated wealth and is obligatory for all who are able to do so. It is considered to be a personal responsibility for Muslims to ease economic hardship for others and eliminate inequality. </p> <h3>Hajj</h3> <p>The <a href="/facts/Hajj/eDC5AalN">Hajj</a> is an Islamic pilgrimage to <a href="/facts/Mecca/udqyuk0k">Mecca</a> and the largest gathering of Muslims in the world every year. It is one of the five pillars of Islam, and a religious duty which must be carried out by every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so at least once in his or her lifetime. </p> <h2 id="other-tenets">Other tenets</h2> <p>In addition, some Muslims include Jihad and Dawah as part of <i>aqidah</i>. </p> <h3>Jihad</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Jihad/DerLM18J">Jihad</a> (to struggle) and literally means to endeavor, strive, labor to apply oneself, to concentrate, to work hard, to accomplish. It could be used to refer to those who physically, mentally or militarily serve in the way of God.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> In the religious context, it is the struggle against disbelief and non-muslim life to establish, propagate and spread the faith and its principles on individualistic and societal levels. </p><p>Jihad is to personal struggle is correct; Jihad is to propagate and spread the faith is incorrect. </p> <h3>Dawah</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Dawah/KoBC3sEy">Dawah</a></p> <p><a href="/facts/Dawah/KoBC3sEy">Da‘wah</a> ("invitation") means the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summon" or "making an invitation", being an active participle of a verb meaning variously "to summon" or "to invite." A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī (داعي plural du‘āh, gen: du‘āt دعاة). </p><p>A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through dialogue, not unlike the Islamic equivalent of a missionary inviting people to the faith, prayer and manner of Islamic life. </p> <h2 id="eschatology">Eschatology</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Islamic_eschatology/7EhMFc0o">Islamic eschatology</a></p> <p><a href="/facts/Eschatology/yRyvUt8B">Eschatology</a> is literally understood as the last things or ultimate things and in Muslim theology, eschatology refers to the end of this world and what will happen in the next world or hereafter. Eschatology covers the death of human beings, their souls after their bodily death, the total destruction of this world, the resurrection of humans, the <a href="/facts/Last_Judgment/x5dW2R4x">Last Judgment</a> of human deeds by God after the resurrection, and the rewards and punishments for the believers and non-believers respectively. The places for the believers in the hereafter are known as <a href="/facts/Paradise/NB9KrK61">Paradise</a> and for the non-believers as <a href="/facts/Hell/2nIkoYTB">Hell</a>. </p> <h2 id="schools-of-theology">Schools of theology</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Schools_of_Islamic_theology/Fa93y9T9">Schools of Islamic theology</a></p> <p>Sunni Muslim theology is the <a href="/facts/Theology/N71Fyw2M">theology</a> and interpretation of creed (<i>aqidah</i>) that derived from the <a href="/facts/Qur%2527an/39rkStko">Qur'an</a> and <a href="/facts/Hadith/8aKKCttq">Hadith</a>. The contents of Muslim theology can be divided into theology proper such as <a href="/facts/Theodicy/p0hb2BaU">theodicy</a>, <a href="/facts/Eschatology/yRyvUt8B">eschatology</a>, <a href="/facts/Anthropology/W6WK1C3a">anthropology</a>, <a href="/facts/Apophatic_theology/PPkzozrC">apophatic theology</a>, and <a href="/facts/Comparative_religion/qSQ59Vqd">comparative religion</a>. In the history of Sunni Muslim theology, there have been theological schools among Muslims displaying both similarities and differences with each other in regard to beliefs. <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p> <h3>Traditional schools</h3> <h4>Kalam</h4> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Kalam/86GebkgK">Kalam</a></p> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Islamic_philosophy/QSzAKr2j">Islamic philosophy</a> and <a href="/facts/Sufi_metaphysics/yuXEMfWq">Sufi metaphysics</a></p> <p><i>Kalām</i> is an "Islamic scholastic theology" of seeking theological principles through <a href="/facts/Dialectic/NTL69ms6">dialectic</a>. In <a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>, the word literally means "speech/words." A scholar of <i>kalām</i> is referred to as a <i>mutakallim</i> (Muslim theologian; plural <i>mutakallimūn</i>). There are many schools of Kalam, the main ones being the <a href="/facts/Ash%2527ari/Rj57d1HI">Ash'ari</a> and <a href="/facts/Maturidi/FtdkCJ9t">Maturidi</a> schools in <a href="/facts/Sunni_Islam/WYo0zeq0">Sunni Islam</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Mu%2527tazilis/yGG9mk6Q">Mu'tazilis</a> (who are not Sunni).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> Traditionalist theology rejects the use of kalam, regarding human reason as sinful in unseen matters.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> </p> <h5>Mu'tazilis</h5> <p>In terms of the relationship between human beings and their creator, the <a href="/facts/Mu%25CA%25BFtazila/yGG9mk6Q">Muʿtazila</a> emphasize human <a href="/facts/Free_will/LwkImELQ">free will</a> over predestination. They also reduced the divine attributes to the divine essence. The Mu'tazilites are considered heretics by all the traditional Sunni Islamic schools of theology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p> <h5>Ash'aris</h5> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Ash%2527ari/Rj57d1HI">Ash'ari</a></p> <p>The eponymous founder of this school is <a href="/facts/Abu_al-Hasan_al-Ash%2527ari/35Ubh7ut">Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari</a>, one of the first to study under but then quit the Mu'tazilis. He then towards the end of his life became an Ashari.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> It was the historic foe of the Mu'tazili school, the "rationalists" in terms of speculative theology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p><p>Ash'arism accepts reason over evidence in regard of exegetical matters and traditionalistic ideas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> What God does or commands—as revealed in the Quran and ahadith—is by definition just. What He prohibits is by definition unjust. Right and wrong are objective realities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Quran/39rkStko">Quran</a> is the uncreated word of God in essence, however, it is created when it takes on a form in letters or sound.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p><p>Some scholars, especially those of the Hanbali school, such as <a href="/facts/Ibn_Qudamah/9pYb1qhI">Ibn Qudamah</a> spoke harshly against the Ash'aris, saying "It is obligatory to abandon the people of innovation and misguidance."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a>, going on to list deviant groups, in which he mentioned the Asha'ris. Other scholars outside of the <a href="/facts/Hanbali_school/xxtJoSLe">Hanbali</a> madhhab such as Shafi’i, <a href="/facts/Maliki_school/yE9tPNMa">Maliki</a>, and <a href="/facts/Hanafi_school/hDlsv2jF">Hanafi</a> scholars, and some of the later Hanbali scholars accepted them into <a href="/facts/Sunni_Islam/WYo0zeq0">Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah</a> and did not view them as deviants. </p> <h5>Maturidis</h5> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Maturidi/FtdkCJ9t">Maturidi</a></p> <p>Maturidism is a Sunni theological school founded by <a href="/facts/Abu_Mansur_al-Maturidi/4PMh68uR">Abu Mansur al-Maturidi</a>, holding many positions in common with the Ash'aris but differing from them on others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> Much like the Ash'arite approach to Qur'anic verses that could yield an <a href="/facts/Anthropomorphic/foTf9q24">anthropomorphic</a> concept of God, they affirmed His transcendence while understanding these expressions by the conventional figurative meanings they had garnered in Arabic. </p><p>Maturidism holds, that humans are creatures endowed with reason, that differentiates them from animals. Further, the relationship between people and God differs from that of nature and God; humans are endowed with <a href="/facts/Free_will/LwkImELQ">free will</a>, but due to God's sovereignty, God creates the acts the humans choose, so humans can perform them. <a href="/facts/Ethics/wNVNgL5q">Ethics</a> can be understood just by reason and do not need prophetic guidances. Maturidi also considered <a href="/facts/Hadith/8aKKCttq">hadiths</a> as unreliable, when they are in odd with reason.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> However, the human mind alone could not grasp the entire truth, thus it is in need of revelation in regard of mysterious affairs. Further, Maturidism opposes anthropomorphism and similitude, while simultaneously does not deny the divine attributes. They must be either interpreted in the light of <a href="/facts/Tawhid/Svh5hgTS">Tawhid</a> or be left out.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p> <h4>Athari theology</h4> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Athari/pXFqeq81">Athari</a></p> <p>For the Athari theology, the apparent meaning of the Qur'an and especially the prophetic traditions have ultimate precedence in matters of belief, as well as law, and to engage in rational disputation, without textual evidence, is absolutely forbidden.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> Atharis engage in an amodal reading of the Qur'an, as opposed to one engaged in <i>Ta'wil</i> (metaphorical interpretation). They do not attempt to rationally conceptualize the meanings of the Qur'an and believe that the real meanings should be consigned to God alone (<i>tafwid</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> This theology was taken from exegesis of the Qur'an and statements of the early Muslims and later codified by a number of scholars including <a href="/facts/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal/sjyTu1Mq">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a> and <a href="/facts/Ibn_Qudamah/9pYb1qhI">Ibn Qudamah</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p> <h3><a href="/facts/Shia/JIQl7ooz">Shia</a> beliefs and practices</h3> <p>Shiʿi Muslims are different as they hold that there are five articles of belief. Similar to the Sunnis, the Shiʿis do not believe in complete predestination, or complete free will. They believe that in human life there is both free will and predestination. </p> <h4>Twelver's Roots of Shia Religion <i>(Uṣūl ad-Dīn)</i></h4> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Theology_of_Twelvers/2F7XCfVt">Theology of Twelvers</a></p> <ol><li><a href="/facts/Tawhid/Svh5hgTS">Tawhid</a>: The Oneness of God.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Adalah_(Islam)/AyqzdCXA">Adalah</a>: The Justice of God.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Prophecy_(Shia_Islam)/cq2rdog7">Nubuwwah</a> (Prophethood): God has appointed perfect and infallible prophets and messengers to teach mankind the religion (i.e. a perfect system on how to live in "peace.")</li> <li><a href="/facts/Imamate_(Twelver_doctrine)/lGndB4yg">Imamate</a>: (Leadership): God has appointed specific leaders to lead and guide mankind— a prophet appoints a custodian of the religion before his demise.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Last_Judgment/x5dW2R4x">Last Judgment</a>: God will raise mankind for Judgment</li></ol> <h4>Ismaili Shia beliefs</h4> <p>The branch of Islam known as <a href="/facts/Isma%2527ilism/e6uySs0b">Isma'ilism</a> is the second largest Shiʿi community. They observe the following extra pillars: </p> <ol><li><a href="/facts/Imamah_(Ismaili_doctrine)/hRaXPDwA">Belief in the Imamate</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Prophecy_(Shia_Islam)/cq2rdog7">Belief in the prophets and messengers</a></li> <li>Beliefs about the Last Judgment</li></ol> <h2 id="literature-pertaining-to-creed">Literature pertaining to creed</h2> <p>Many Muslim scholars have written Islamic creeds, or specific aspects of a <i>aqidah</i>. The following list contains some of the most well-known creeds. </p> <h3>Sunni literature</h3> <ul><li><i>Mukhtasar Shu'ab al-Imān</i> or "The 77 branches of faith" by the Imām <a href="/facts/Al-Bayhaqi/03prC0H2">al-Bayhaqi</a></li> <li><i>Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar</i> by Imām <a href="/facts/Abu_Hanifa/Ij7MdbW5">Abu Hanifa</a></li> <li><i>al-ʿAqīdah aṭ-Ṭaḥāwiyya</i> ("The Fundamentals of Islamic Creed by <a href="/facts/Al-Tahawi/LzzbqmQD">al-Tahawi</a>). This has been accepted by almost all Sunnis (<a href="/facts/Athari/pXFqeq81">Atharis</a>, <a href="/facts/Ash%2527ari/Rj57d1HI">Ash'aris</a> and <a href="/facts/Maturidi/FtdkCJ9t">Maturidis</a>). Several Islamic scholars have written about the Tahawiyya creed, including <a href="/facts/Ali_al-Qari/8qD5An5l">Ali al-Qari</a>, <a href="/facts/Abd_al-Ghani_al-Ghunaymi_al-Maydani/nVw3Nfd4">al-Maydani</a>, <a href="/facts/Ibn_Abi_al-Izz/IrFIByrk">ibn Abi al-Izz</a> and <a href="/facts/Abd_al-Aziz_ibn_Baz/rhMMCEv9">Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz</a>.</li> <li><i>As- Sunnah</i> by Imām <a href="/facts/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal/sjyTu1Mq">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a></li> <li><i>Al- Iman</i> by al-Adni</li> <li><i>As-Sunnah</i> by Imām <a href="/facts/Abu_Dawood/tI3hrLCU">Abu Dawood</a></li> <li><i>Sarihus Sunnah</i> by Imām <a href="/facts/Al-Tabari/cmM0W6IK">Al-Tabari</a></li> <li><i>As-Sunnah</i> by Imām <a href="/facts/Al-Tabarani/qSWdvt27">Al-Tabarani</a></li> <li><i>Aqīdah Salafi Ahl al-Hadith</i> by al-Sabuni</li> <li><i>I'tīqad Ahl Al-Sunnah wal Jām'ah</i> by Imām Lalqai Hibatullah</li> <li><i>As- Sunnah</i> by Nasr al- Marwazi</li> <li><i>Ash-Shariah</i> by al-Ajurri</li> <li><i>Al-Iman</i> by Ibn Mandah</li> <li><i>Ad- Durrātu fīma yazibu i'tiqaduhu</i> by Imām <a href="/facts/Ibn_Hazm/h72LYD7E">Ibn Hazm</a></li> <li><i>Kitāb at- Tāwhid</i> by Imām <a href="/facts/Ibn_Rajab/9Ydj9aks">Ibn Rajab</a></li> <li><i>Al- 'Aqīdah al-Nasafiyya</i> by Imām <a href="/facts/Najm_al-Din_%2527Umar_al-Nasafi/fXo73bYJ">Najm al-Din 'Umar al-Nasafi</a></li> <li><i>Ar-rīsālah al-kairoāniyah</i> by Abi Zaid al-Kairoa</li> <li><i>Al-I'tīqad</i> by <a href="/facts/Al-Bayhaqi/03prC0H2">Al-Bayhaqi</a></li> <li><i>Al-ʿAqīdah al-Wāsiṭiyyah</i> ("The <a href="/facts/Wasit%2c_Iraq/qHe7Dclg">Wasit</a> Creed") by <a href="/facts/Ibn_Taymiyyah/UIRPbN8T">ibn Taymiyyah</a>.</li> <li><i>Sharh as Sunnah</i> or the <i>Explanation of the Sunna</i> by <a href="/facts/Al-Hasan_ibn_%2527Ali_al-Barbahari/JNGtuYNk">al-Hasan ibn 'Ali al-Barbahari</a>. Lists approximately 170 points pertaining to the fundamentals of <i>aqidah</i>.</li> <li><i>Khalq Afʿāl al-ʿIbād</i> ("The Creation of the Acts of Servants") by <a href="/facts/Muhammad_al-Bukhari/VRUqSepx">Muhammad al-Bukhari</a>. It shows the opinion of early scholars (<a href="/facts/Salaf/8Q50TWgx">Salaf</a>) but it does not cover all topics.</li> <li><i>Lum'at al-Itiqād</i> by <a href="/facts/Ibn_Qudamah/9pYb1qhI">ibn Qudamah</a>. Details the creed of the early Imams of the Sunni Muslims and one of the key works in the <a href="/facts/Athari/pXFqeq81">Athari</a> creed.</li> <li><i>al-ʿUluww</i> by <a href="/facts/Al-Dhahabi/mDueqhUR">al-Dhahabī</a>. Details the opinions of early scholars on matters of creed.</li> <li><i>Ibaanah</i> <i>ān ūsulid diyanah</i> by <a href="/facts/Abu_al-Hasan_al-Ash%2527ari/35Ubh7ut">Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari</a>.</li> <li><i>Risālah al-Qudsiyyah</i> ("The Jerusalem Tract") by <a href="/facts/Al-Ghazali/haPCCftt">al-Ghazali</a>, where the rules of faith are discussed.</li> <li><i>Sa'd al-Din al-Taftazani</i> on the creed of <a href="/facts/Abu_Hafs_Umar_an-Nasafi/fXo73bYJ">Abu Hafs Umar an-Nasafi</a></li></ul> <h3>Shia literature</h3> <ul><li>Kitāb al-tawḥīd, kitāb al-ḥujjah, and kitāb al-īmān wa'l-kufr in <i>ʾUṣūl al-kāfī</i> by <a href="/facts/Muhammad_ibn_Ya%2527qub_al-Kulayni/KfdypIAR">al-Kulaynī</a></li> <li><i>Kitāb al-tawḥīd</i> by <a href="/facts/Shaykh_al-Saduq/4nRCjm3u">al-Ṣadūq</a></li> <li><i>al-Iʿtiqādāt</i> by al-Ṣadūq</li> <li><i>Taṣḥīḥ al-iʿtiqādāt</i> by <a href="/facts/Al-Shaykh_al-Mufid/4eVWgD9k">al-Mufīd</a></li> <li><i>Bāb ḥādī ʿašar</i> by <a href="/facts/Allamah_Al-Hilli/9jm5GFUt">al-Hillī</a></li> <li><i>al-Fuṣūl al-muhimma fī uṣūl al-aʾimma</i> by <a href="/facts/Al-Hurr_al-Amili/0rx17IAw">al-Ḥurr al-ʿāmilī</a></li> <li><i>al-Ḥaqq al-yaqīn</i> by <a href="/facts/Al-Majlisi/szX3j0pI">al-Majlīsī</a></li> <li><i>Shiʿite Islam</i> <a href="/facts/Muhammad_Husayn_Tabataba%2527i/bYGrm2h3">Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i</a>: translated by <a href="/facts/Hossein_Nasr/zUGNtq7v">Hossein Nasr</a>; (also reprinted under the title <i>Shi'a.)"</i></li> <li><i>Root and Branches of Faith</i> by Maqbul Hussein Rahim</li> <li><i>Shi'ism Doctrines, Thought and Spirituality</i> by <a href="/facts/Hossein_Nasr/zUGNtq7v">Hossein Nasr</a></li></ul> <h2 id="gallery">Gallery</h2> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>Islam portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Throne_of_God/VUHl1vur">Arsh</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Bidah/Jrrm6sGT">Bidah</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy/JH2nhACX">Contemporary Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Glossary_of_Islam/Bj2A30xa">Glossary of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Iman_(Islam)/gtEG6MFP">Iman (Islam)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Index_of_Islam-related_articles/2bNsRGR1">Index of Islam-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Islamic_eschatology/7EhMFc0o">Islamic eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Islamic_schools_and_branches/jmWNJqPb">Islamic schools and branches</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Islamic_studies/kNWshAlX">Islamic studies</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Kufr/buKtP9ps">Kufr</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Madhhab/NNVKbWQ1">Madhhab</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Outline_of_Islam/MMk4hqW2">Outline of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Schools_of_Islamic_theology/Fa93y9T9">Schools of Islamic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Shahada/DH7A50mJ">Shahada</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Shia%25E2%2580%2593Sunni_relations/UJIjy639">Shia–Sunni relations</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Shia_crescent/k0t0WugR">Shia crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Shirk_(Islam)/gNIPBXkD">Shirk (Islam)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Succession_to_Muhammad/vpF82GCs">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sunnah/fmXN1E1q">Sunnah</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sufi-Salafi_relations/yIpg8Vsn">Sufi-Salafi relations</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Tawhid/Svh5hgTS">Tawhid</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Abdel-Haleem, M. A. S. (2008). "Part I: Historical perspectives - Qur'an and hadith". In Winter, Timothy (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 19–32. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.002. ISBN 9781139001816. <a href="9781139001816" target="_blank">9781139001816</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Buang, Sa’eda; Chew, Phyllis Ghim-Lian (9 May 2014). Muslim Education in the 21st Century: Asian perspectives. Routledge. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-317-81500-6. Retrieved 9 August 2022. <a href="978-1-317-81500-6" target="_blank">978-1-317-81500-6</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Abbas, Tahir (22 January 2007). Islamic Political Radicalism: A European Perspective. Edinburgh University Press. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7486-3086-8. Retrieved 9 August 2022. <a href="978-0-7486-3086-8" target="_blank">978-0-7486-3086-8</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Guillaume, Alfred (1978) [1954]. Islam. Penguin. p. 134. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>FAROOQ, MOHAMMAD OMAR (6 February 2020). "Let's Be Content With Iman, Not Aqeedah". Islamicity. Retrieved 26 June 2022. <a href="https://www.islamicity.org/22471/lets-be-content-with-iman-not-aqeedah/" target="_blank">https://www.islamicity.org/22471/lets-be-content-with-iman-not-aqeedah/</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>and hence the class VIII verb iʿtaqada "to firmly believe", verbal noun iʿtiqād "belief, faith, trust, confidence, conviction; creed, doctrine", participle muʿtaqad "creed, doctrine, dogma, conviction, belief, opinion". (Source: Wehr, Hans, “عقد” in: J. Milton Cowan (ed.), A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, 4th edition (1979)). <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"Theology (Aqidah)". Madina Institute. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814171953/https://www.madinainstitute.com/studies_programs/aqidah-theology" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20210814171953/https://www.madinainstitute.com/studies_programs/aqidah-theology</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Glasse, Cyril (2001). New Encyclopedia of Islam (Revised ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 105. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Glasse, Cyril (2001). New Encyclopedia of Islam (Revised ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 105. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Abu Hanifah An-Nu^man. "Al- Fiqh Al-Akbar" (PDF). aicp.org. Retrieved 14 March 2014. <a href="http://www.aicp.org/SupportingDocs/Al__Fiqh__Akbar_English.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.aicp.org/SupportingDocs/Al__Fiqh__Akbar_English.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Glasse, Cyril (2001). New Encyclopedia of Islam (Revised ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 105. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Glasse, Cyril (2001). New Encyclopedia of Islam (Revised ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 105. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Clark, Malcolm (2003). "4. What Muslims believe. Rejecting formal creeds". Islam for Dunnies. Wiley. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Joel Beversluis, ed. (2011). Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality. New World Library. pp. 68–9. ISBN 9781577313328. <a href="9781577313328" target="_blank">9781577313328</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>"The Quran". The Quran. contributors Iman Mohammad Kashi, Uwe Hideki Matzen, and Online Quran Project.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link) <a href="http://al-quran.info/#&&sura=2&aya=177&trans=en-arthur_arberry&show=both,quran-uthmani&format=rows&ver=1.00" target="_blank">http://al-quran.info/#&&sura=2&aya=177&trans=en-arthur_arberry&show=both,quran-uthmani&format=rows&ver=1.00</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Vincent J. Cornell, Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol 5, pp. 3561-3562. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Asma Barlas (2002), p. 97. <a href="/wiki/Asma_Barlas" target="_blank">/wiki/Asma_Barlas</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Wahhab, Abd Al. "Chapter 4, Fear of Shirk". Kitab Al Tawheed. Darussalam. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Farāhī, Majmū‘ah Tafāsīr, 2nd ed. (Faran Foundation, 1998), 347. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Frederick M. Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 3rd ed., p. 405 <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Glasse, Cyril (2001). New Encyclopedia of Islam (Revised ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 105. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Khalid Mahmood Shaikh <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Islamic Studies Resources, BAHISEEN [Islamic Studies]. "Primary Resources". Archived from the original on 2021-02-26. <a href="https://bahiseen.com/bahiseen-resource-bank/list-of-primery-sources-in-islamic-studies/" target="_blank">https://bahiseen.com/bahiseen-resource-bank/list-of-primery-sources-in-islamic-studies/</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Frank, Daniel H.; Leaman, Oliver; H, Frank Daniel (2003-09-11). The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Jewish Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-521-65574-3. Retrieved 10 August 2022. <a href="978-0-521-65574-3" target="_blank">978-0-521-65574-3</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Jeffry R. Halverson (2010). Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam: The Muslim Brotherhood, Ash'arism, and Political Sunnism. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 20. ISBN 9780230106581. <a href="9780230106581" target="_blank">9780230106581</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Hadi Enayat Islam and Secularism in Post-Colonial Thought: A Cartography of Asadian Genealogies Springer, 30.06.2017 ISBN 9783319526119 p.48 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Nader El-Bizri, ‘God: essence and attributes’, in The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic theology, ed. Tim Winter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 121-140 <a href="/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri" target="_blank">/wiki/Nader_El-Bizri</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>A. C. Grayling (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. p. 390. ISBN 9780241980866. ). <a href="9780241980866" target="_blank">9780241980866</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Jeffrey T. Kenney; Ebrahim Moosa, eds. (2013). Islam in the Modern World. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 9781135007959. <a href="9781135007959" target="_blank">9781135007959</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Hamid Dabashi (2012). Shi'ism: A Religion of Protest. Harvard University Press. p. 338. ISBN 9780674262911. <a href="9780674262911" target="_blank">9780674262911</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Ed. Esposito The Oxford History of Islam Oxford University Press 1999 ISBN 9780195107999 p. 280 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2014) Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications ISBN 978-1780744209 p. 53 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Cyril Glassé, Huston Smith The New Encyclopedia of Islam Rowman Altamira 2003 ISBN 978-0-759-10190-6 page 62-3 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Ibn Qudamah al-Maqdisi, Kitab al-I’tiqad, pp. 43-44. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi (1971). Mohiuddin Ahmad (ed.). Saviours of Islamic Spirit, Volume 1. Translated by Mohiuddin Ahmad. Lucknow, India: Academy of Islamic Research and Publications. p. 98. The differences between the Ash'arites and the Maturidites were simply marginal and limited to 30 to 40 issues of comparatively lesser importance. <a href="/wiki/Abul_Hasan_Ali_Nadwi" target="_blank">/wiki/Abul_Hasan_Ali_Nadwi</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>H.R.H. Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad (2018). Foreword by H.M. King Abdullah II ibn al-Hussein (ed.). A Thinking Person's Guide to Islam: The Essence of Islam in 12 Verses from the Qur'an. Turath Publishing. p. 171. ISBN 9781906949648. Most Sunnis of the four madhahib follow the Ash'ari and Maturidi schools of doctrine and theology. Indeed, Ash'ari and Maturidi doctrines basically only differ on a few issues, most of which are arguably linguistic quibbles, so that these two schools of theology are essentially one tradition. <a href="9781906949648" target="_blank">9781906949648</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Fitzroy Morrissey (2021). A Short History of Islamic Thought. Oxford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 9780197522011. There, in a city noted for its religious diversity, he continued the old tradition of kalam as reasoned polemic: his writings contain refutations of Jews, Christians, and the dualist Manichaeans and Zoroastrians, as well as the Mu'tazila, the Shi'a, and other misguided Islamic sects. Against these various opponents, al-Maturidi argued for doctrines that were essentially close to those of al-Ash'ari. <a href="9780197522011" target="_blank">9780197522011</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>"هل أهل السنة في الأردن هم الأشاعرة؟". aliftaa.jo (in Arabic). The General Iftaa' Department of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Archived from the original on 4 Jul 2015. الأشاعرة هم جمهور أهل السنة والجماعة من المالكية والشافعية، وأما الحنفية فهم ماتريدية يتبعون أبا منصور الماتريدي (333هـ)، والخلاف بينهم وبين الأشاعرة محدود <a href="https://archive.today/20150704092249/http://aliftaa.jo/Question.aspx?QuestionId=489%23.VZel4OLLfK4" target="_blank">https://archive.today/20150704092249/http://aliftaa.jo/Question.aspx?QuestionId=489%23.VZel4OLLfK4</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Rico Isaacs, Alessandro Frigerio Theorizing Central Asian Politics: The State, Ideology and Power Springer, 2018 ISBN 9783319973555 p. 108 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Mohammad Sharif Khan, Mohammad Anwar Saleem Muslim Philosophy and Philosophers PH Publishing, 1994 ISBN 9788170246237 p. 30 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Jeffry R. Halverson, Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam. ISBN 0230106587, p 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Jeffry R. Halverson, Theology and Creed in Sunni Islam. ISBN 0230106587, p 36-37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Ahmad, Ustadha Shazia (29 March 2022). "Which School of Thought Should I Follow in 'Aqida?". Seekers Guidance. Retrieved 26 June 2022. <a href="https://seekersguidance.org/answers/islamic-belief/which-school-of-thought-should-i-follow-in-aqida/" target="_blank">https://seekersguidance.org/answers/islamic-belief/which-school-of-thought-should-i-follow-in-aqida/</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Abrahamov, Binyamin (2016) [2014]. "Part I: Islamic Theologies during the Formative and the Early Middle period – Scripturalist and Traditionalist Theology". In Schmidtke, Sabine (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Theology. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 263–279. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199696703.013.025. ISBN 9780199696703. LCCN 2016935488. <a href="9780199696703" target="_blank">9780199696703</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>