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Biogeographic realm
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<h2 id="description">Description</h2> <p>The realms delineate large areas of Earth's surface within which organisms have evolved in relative isolation over long periods of time, separated by geographic features, such as <a href="/facts/Ocean/8W8lYgjD">oceans</a>, broad <a href="/facts/Desert/Mknp4bXq">deserts</a>, or high <a href="/facts/Mountain_range/L7vxtr7A">mountain ranges</a>, that constitute <a href="/facts/Natural_barrier/gPk2lHpp">natural barriers</a> to migration. As such, biogeographic realm designations are used to indicate general groupings of organisms based on their shared biogeography. Biogeographic realms correspond to the <a href="/facts/Phytochorion/N0pbrfQl">floristic kingdoms</a> of <a href="/facts/Botany/PaIRoxnb">botany</a> or <a href="/facts/Zoogeography/mbKwWjkg">zoogeographic regions</a> of <a href="/facts/Zoology/6Kj13mBt">zoology</a>. </p><p>From 1872, <a href="/facts/Alfred_Russel_Wallace/bMvvalao">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> developed a system of zoogeographic regions, extending the <a href="/facts/Ornithology/5reEUbx1">ornithologist</a> <a href="/facts/Philip_Sclater/FYgVIRt8">Philip Sclater</a>'s system of six regions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> </p><p>Biogeographic realms are characterized by the evolutionary history of the organisms they contain. They are distinct from <a href="/facts/Biome/cl4X36GB">biomes</a>, also known as major habitat types, which are divisions of the Earth's surface based on <i>life form</i>, or the adaptation of animals, fungi, micro-organisms and plants to climatic, <a href="/facts/Soil/5Ddpr3QM">soil</a>, and other conditions. Biomes are characterized by similar <a href="/facts/Climax_community/rBLHejuQ">climax vegetation</a>. Each realm may include a number of different biomes. A <a href="/facts/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests/yR0TXBHb">tropical moist broadleaf forest</a> in Central America, for example, may be similar to one in New Guinea in its vegetation type and structure, climate, soils, etc., but these forests are inhabited by animals, fungi, micro-organisms and plants with very different evolutionary histories. </p><p>The distribution of organisms among the world's biogeographic realms has been influenced by the distribution of <a href="/facts/Landmass/Nr31Cq7A">landmasses</a>, as shaped by <a href="/facts/Plate_tectonics/RtRG5lY4">plate tectonics</a> over the <a href="/facts/Geological_history_of_Earth/Jx7ClmF4">geological history of Earth</a>. </p> <h2 id="concept-history">Concept history</h2> <p>The "biogeographic realms" of Udvardy<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> were defined based on taxonomic composition. The rank corresponds more or less to the <a href="/facts/Phytochorion/N0pbrfQl">floristic kingdoms</a> and <a href="/facts/Zoogeography/mbKwWjkg">zoogeographic regions</a>. </p><p>The usage of the term "ecozone" is more variable. Beginning in the 1960s, it was used originally in the field of <a href="/facts/Biostratigraphy/AzdPX12G">biostratigraphy</a> to denote intervals of geological <a href="/facts/Stratum/w5D4VAwa">strata</a> with fossil content demonstrating a specific ecology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> In Canadian literature, the term was used by Wiken<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> in macro-level <a href="/facts/Regionalisation/YfSK4bd0">land classification</a>, with geographic criteria (see <a href="/facts/Ecozones_of_Canada/wy0m5DvS">Ecozones of Canada</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> Later, Schultz<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> would use it with ecological and physiognomical criteria, in a way similar to the concept of <a href="/facts/Biome/cl4X36GB">biome</a>. </p><p>In the <a href="/facts/Global_200/dD68V73m">Global 200</a>/WWF scheme,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> originally the term "biogeographic realm" in Udvardy sense was used. However, in a scheme of <a href="/facts/BBC/qFateIz8">BBC</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> it was replaced by the term "ecozone". </p> <h2 id="terrestrial-biogeographic-realms">Terrestrial biogeographic realms</h2> <h3>Udvardy biogeographic realms</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/List_of_biogeographic_provinces/0I4arrYq">List of biogeographic provinces</a></p> <h3>WWF / Global 200 biogeographic realms</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Global_200/dD68V73m">Global 200</a></p> <p>The <a href="/facts/World_Wildlife_Fund/u8NgdHjK">World Wildlife Fund</a> scheme<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> is broadly similar to <a href="/facts/Miklos_Udvardy/A7XP6MVV">Miklos Udvardy</a>'s system,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> the chief difference being the delineation of the Australasian realm relative to the Antarctic, Oceanic, and Indomalayan realms. In the WWF system, the Australasia realm includes <a href="/facts/Australia/qLHpbppq">Australia</a>, <a href="/facts/Tasmania/q3dubPTt">Tasmania</a>, the islands of <a href="/facts/Wallacea/3FmddtYw">Wallacea</a>, <a href="/facts/New_Guinea/qB0bzfSH">New Guinea</a>, the <a href="/facts/East_Melanesian_Islands/yysKsWfR">East Melanesian Islands</a>, <a href="/facts/New_Caledonia/VI15kA61">New Caledonia</a>, and <a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg">New Zealand</a>. Udvardy's Australian realm includes only Australia and Tasmania; he places <a href="/facts/Wallacea/3FmddtYw">Wallacea</a> in the Indomalayan Realm, New Guinea, New Caledonia, and East Melanesia in the Oceanian Realm, and New Zealand in the Antarctic Realm. </p> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2">Biogeographicrealm</th><th colspan="2">Area</th><th rowspan="2">Lands included</th></tr><tr><th>million square kilometres</th><th>million square miles</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Palearctic_realm/DqwBQMyP">Palearctic</a></td><td>54.1</td><td>20.9</td><td>The bulk of <a href="/facts/Eurasia/KlLI9GDM">Eurasia</a> and <a href="/facts/North_Africa/ItxQAfs7">North Africa</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Nearctic_realm/BxcNvqhk">Nearctic</a></td><td>22.9</td><td>8.8</td><td><a href="/facts/Greenland/aagXRTB7">Greenland</a> and most of <a href="/facts/North_America/djNjCQIl">North America</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Afrotropical_realm/I8ko4H7G">Afrotropic</a></td><td>22.1</td><td>8.5</td><td><a href="/facts/Sub-Saharan_Africa/p4u389aa">Trans-Saharan Africa</a>, <a href="/facts/Madagascar/ez12IAcY">Madagascar</a> and <a href="/facts/Arabian_Peninsula/x1fDka2b">Arabia</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Neotropical_realm/CHrCzFbK">Neotropic</a></td><td>19.0</td><td>7.3</td><td><a href="/facts/South_America/PhrFEMk7">South America</a>, <a href="/facts/Central_America/CXKgTuxC">Central America</a>, the <a href="/facts/Caribbean/zRI9aMCh">Caribbean</a>, <a href="/facts/South_Florida/9buquI9F">South Florida</a> and the <a href="/facts/Falkland_Islands/a6FdpUEA">Falkland Islands</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Australasian_realm/wDF37Qxj">Australasia</a></td><td>7.6</td><td>2.9</td><td><a href="/facts/Australia/qLHpbppq">Australia</a>, <a href="/facts/Melanesia/6NCwA1Sl">Melanesia</a>, <a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/facts/Lesser_Sunda_Islands/vDuK1jHb">Lesser Sunda Islands</a>, <a href="/facts/Sulawesi/BKg2WNej">Sulawesi</a>, <a href="/facts/Maluku_Islands/Bwucm34R">Maluku Islands</a> and the neighbouring islands. The northern boundary of this zone is known as the <a href="/facts/Wallace_Line/Sykp7vXg">Wallace Line</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Indomalayan_realm/GHK7p0aW">Indomalaya</a></td><td>7.5</td><td>2.9</td><td>The <a href="/facts/Indian_subcontinent/0XUWGXpx">Indian subcontinent</a>, <a href="/facts/Southeast_Asia/VafwT517">Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="/facts/Northern_and_southern_China/p7vVbT3e">southern China</a> and most of the <a href="/facts/Greater_Sunda_Islands/R2CjgQcD">Greater Sunda Islands</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Oceanian_realm/9WcGuq0r">Oceania</a></td><td>1.0</td><td>0.39</td><td><a href="/facts/Polynesia/rVSckqmD">Polynesia</a> (except New Zealand), <a href="/facts/Micronesia/xUf6LkMv">Micronesia</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Fiji/JU8Hs8WH">Fijian Islands</a>.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Antarctic_realm/47KK4mBF">Antarctic</a></td><td>0.3</td><td>0.12</td><td><a href="/facts/Antarctica/bEM5Lem5">Antarctica</a>, <a href="/facts/Alexander_Island/KdPNRTKv">Alexander Island</a>, <a href="/facts/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands/6N4RScxK">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/facts/Palearctic_realm/DqwBQMyP">Palearctic</a> and <a href="/facts/Nearctic_realm/BxcNvqhk">Nearctic</a> are sometimes grouped into the <a href="/facts/Holarctic_realm/uNgFyNx9">Holarctic realm</a>. </p> <h3>Morrone biogeographic kingdoms</h3> <p>Following the nomenclatural conventions set out in the <a href="/facts/International_Code_of_Area_Nomenclature/DXsQKI68">International Code of Area Nomenclature</a>, Morrone<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> defined the next biogeographic kingdoms (or realms) and regions: </p> <ul><li>Holarctic kingdom Heilprin (1887) <ul><li>Nearctic region Sclater (1858)</li> <li>Palearctic region Sclater (1858)</li></ul></li> <li>Holotropical kingdom Rapoport (1968) <ul><li>Neotropical region Sclater (1858)</li> <li>Ethiopian region Sclater (1858)</li> <li>Oriental region Wallace (1876)</li></ul></li> <li>Austral kingdom Engler (1899) <ul><li>Cape region Grisebach (1872)</li> <li>Andean region Engler (1882)</li> <li>Australian region Sclater (1858)</li> <li>Antarctic region Grisebach (1872)</li></ul></li> <li>Transition zones: <ul><li>Mexican transition zone (Nearctic–Neotropical transition)</li> <li>Saharo-Arabian transition zone (Palearctic–Ethiopian transition)</li> <li>Chinese transition zone (Palearctic–Oriental transition zone transition)</li> <li>Indo-Malayan, Indonesian or Wallace's transition zone (Oriental–Australian transition)</li> <li>South American transition zone (Neotropical–Austral transition)</li></ul></li></ul> <h2 id="freshwater-biogeographic-realms">Freshwater biogeographic realms</h2> <p>The applicability of Udvardy scheme<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> to most freshwater taxa is unresolved.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Drainage_basin/lzsx0XJS">drainage basins</a> of the principal oceans and seas of the world are marked by continental divides. The grey areas are <a href="/facts/Endorheic_basin/0CHdGUlG">endorheic basins</a> that do not drain to the ocean. </p> <h2 id="marine-biogeographic-realms">Marine biogeographic realms</h2> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Longhurst_code/uyayefQf">Longhurst code</a></p> <p>According to Briggs<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> and Morrone:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Indo-Pacific/pVfP1gxV">Indo-West Pacific</a> region</li> <li>Eastern Pacific region</li> <li>Western Atlantic region</li> <li>Eastern Atlantic region</li> <li>Southern Australian region</li> <li>Northern New Zealand region</li> <li>Western South America region</li> <li>Eastern South America region</li> <li>Southern Africa region</li> <li>Mediterranean–Atlantic region</li> <li>Carolina region</li> <li>California region</li> <li>Japan region</li> <li>Tasmanian region</li> <li>Southern New Zealand region</li> <li>Antipodean region</li> <li>Subantarctic region</li> <li>Magellan region</li> <li>Eastern Pacific Boreal region</li> <li>Western Atlantic Boreal region</li> <li>Eastern Atlantic Boreal region</li> <li>Antarctic region</li> <li>Arctic region</li></ul> <p>According to the WWF scheme:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Arctic_realm/nTgAHq0s">Arctic realm</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Temperate_Northern_Atlantic/6IHQENcl">Temperate Northern Atlantic</a> realm</li> <li><a href="/facts/Temperate_Northern_Pacific/780WnoSE">Temperate Northern Pacific</a> realm</li> <li><a href="/facts/Tropical_Atlantic/E6coyV4D">Tropical Atlantic</a> realm</li> <li><a href="/facts/Western_Indo-Pacific/5lYB83tG">Western Indo-Pacific</a> realm</li> <li><a href="/facts/Central_Indo-Pacific/jmkcFlh2">Central Indo-Pacific</a> realm</li> <li><a href="/facts/Eastern_Indo-Pacific/o4oUtPGr">Eastern Indo-Pacific</a> realm</li> <li><a href="/facts/Tropical_Eastern_Pacific/7dJv5m6v">Tropical Eastern Pacific</a> realm</li> <li><a href="/facts/Temperate_South_America/A52rvRj6">Temperate South America</a> realm</li> <li><a href="/facts/Temperate_Southern_Africa/v83YowAS">Temperate Southern Africa</a> realm</li> <li><a href="/facts/Temperate_Australasia/KN2JC1hu">Temperate Australasia</a> realm</li> <li><a href="/facts/Southern_Ocean/F15W9ADT">Southern Ocean</a> realm</li></ul> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Biogeographic realms. <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Biome/cl4X36GB">Biome</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cosmopolitan_distribution/bXgocWnV">Cosmopolitan distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ecotone/bBzYPS0Q">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Phytochorion/N0pbrfQl">Phytochorion</a> and <a href="/facts/World_Geographical_Scheme_for_Recording_Plant_Distributions/bDF7KBJl">World Geographical Scheme for Recording Plant Distributions</a>, used in botany</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Holt, Ben G.; Lessard, Jean-Philippe; Borregaard, Michael K.; et al. (4 January 2013). "An Update of Wallace's Zoogeographic Regions of the World". Science. 339 (6115): 74–78. Bibcode:2013Sci...339...74H. doi:10.1126/science.1228282. PMID 23258408. S2CID 1723657. <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" target="_blank">/wiki/Science_(journal)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Udvardy, Miklos D.F. (1975). "A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world". IUCN Occasional Paper (18). Morges: International Union for Conservation of Nature and natural resources (IUCN). <a href="https://www.iucn.org/content/a-classification-biogeographical-provinces-world" target="_blank">https://www.iucn.org/content/a-classification-biogeographical-provinces-world</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Størmer, Leif (1966-01-01). "Concepts of stratigraphical classification and terminology". Earth-Science Reviews. 1 (1): 5–28. doi:10.1016/0012-8252(66)90039-0. ISSN 0012-8252. <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252%2866%2990039-0" target="_blank">https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252%2866%2990039-0</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"ecozones.ca home page". www.ecozones.ca. Retrieved 2022-12-31. <a href="http://www.ecozones.ca/" target="_blank">http://www.ecozones.ca/</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"ecozones.ca home page". www.ecozones.ca. Retrieved 2022-12-31. <a href="http://www.ecozones.ca/" target="_blank">http://www.ecozones.ca/</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Scott, Geoffrey A.J. (1995). Canada's vegetation: a world perspective. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 13. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QpHCHdrgSVoC&pg=PA13" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QpHCHdrgSVoC&pg=PA13</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Schultz, J. Die Ökozonen der Erde, 1st ed., Ulmer, Stuttgart, Germany, 1988, 488 pp.; 2nd ed., 1995, 535 pp.; 3rd ed., 2002.Translated in English as: Schultz, Jürgen (2005). The Ecozones of the World: The Ecological Divisions of the Geosphere (2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer. ISBN 9783540285274. <a href="9783540285274" target="_blank">9783540285274</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Olson, David M.; Dinerstein, Eric (June 1998). "The Global 200: A representation approach to conserving the Earth's most biologically valuable ecoregions". Conservation Biology. 12 (3): 502–515. Bibcode:1998ConBi..12..502O. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012003502.x. S2CID 86613942. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012003502.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012003502.x</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>"Ecozones". BBC Nature. Archived from the original on 10 July 2018. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180710161951/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/ecozones" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20180710161951/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/ecozones</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>"Ecozones". BBC Nature. Archived from the original on 10 July 2018. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180710161951/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/ecozones" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20180710161951/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/ecozones</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Olson, David M.; Dinerstein, Eric (June 1998). "The Global 200: A representation approach to conserving the Earth's most biologically valuable ecoregions". Conservation Biology. 12 (3): 502–515. Bibcode:1998ConBi..12..502O. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012003502.x. S2CID 86613942. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012003502.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012003502.x</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Olson, D. M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E. D., Burgess, N. D., Powell, G. V. N., Underwood, E. C., D'Amico, J. A., Itoua, I., Strand, H. E., Morrison, J. C., Loucks, C. J., Allnutt, T. F., Ricketts, T. H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J. F., Wettengel, W. W., Hedao, P., Kassem, K. R. (2001). Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on Earth. Bioscience 51(11):933-938. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120917072415/http://wolfweb.unr.edu/~ldyer/classes/396/olsonetal.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120917072415/http://wolfweb.unr.edu/~ldyer/classes/396/olsonetal.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Udvardy, Miklos D.F. (1975). "A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world". IUCN Occasional Paper (18). Morges: International Union for Conservation of Nature and natural resources (IUCN). <a href="https://www.iucn.org/content/a-classification-biogeographical-provinces-world" target="_blank">https://www.iucn.org/content/a-classification-biogeographical-provinces-world</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Morrone, Juan J. (2015-11-13). "Biogeographical regionalisation of the world: a reappraisal". Australian Systematic Botany. 28 (3): 81–90. doi:10.1071/SB14042. ISSN 1446-5701. S2CID 83401946. <a href="https://www.publish.csiro.au/sb/SB14042" target="_blank">https://www.publish.csiro.au/sb/SB14042</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Udvardy, Miklos D.F. (1975). "A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world". IUCN Occasional Paper (18). Morges: International Union for Conservation of Nature and natural resources (IUCN). <a href="https://www.iucn.org/content/a-classification-biogeographical-provinces-world" target="_blank">https://www.iucn.org/content/a-classification-biogeographical-provinces-world</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>"Freshwater Ecoregions of the World" (PDF). www.feow.org. Retrieved 2022-12-31. <a href="https://www.feow.org/downloads/Abell_et_al_08_BioScience.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.feow.org/downloads/Abell_et_al_08_BioScience.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Briggs, J.C. (1995). Global Biogeography. Developments in Palaeontology and Stratigraphy n. 14. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 9780444825605. <a href="9780444825605" target="_blank">9780444825605</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Morrone, J.J. (2009). Evolutionary biogeography, an integrative approach with case studies. New York City: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231512831. <a href="9780231512831" target="_blank">9780231512831</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Spalding, Mark D.; Fox, Helen E.; Allen, Gerald R.; Davidson, Nick; et al. (2007). "Marine ecoregions of the world: a bioregionalization of coastal and shelf areas". BioScience. 57 (7): 573–583. doi:10.1641/B570707. S2CID 29150840. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2021. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161006104440/http://algae.thu.edu.tw/lab/2013_Meeting_FebJune/2007_Marine_ecoregions_of_the_world.pdf%5d" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20161006104440/http://algae.thu.edu.tw/lab/2013_Meeting_FebJune/2007_Marine_ecoregions_of_the_world.pdf%5d</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>