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Grouse
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<h2 id="description">Description</h2> <p>Like many other galliforms, grouse are generally heavily-built birds. The traditional grouse (excluding turkeys) range in length from 31 to 95 cm (12 to 37+1⁄2 in), and in weight from 0.3 to 6.5 kg (3⁄4 to 14+1⁄4 lb). If they are included, <a href="/facts/Wild_turkey/8mffpGov">wild turkey</a> toms are the largest grouse species, attaining lengths of 130 cm (50 in) and weighing up to 10 kg (22 lb).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Male grouse are larger than females, and can be twice as heavy in the <a href="/facts/Western_capercaillie/9QXcI34y">western capercaillie</a> (the largest of the traditional grouse). Like many other galliforms, males often sport incredibly elaborate ornamentation, such as crests, fan-tails, and inflatable, brightly colored patches of bare skin. Many grouse have feathered nostrils, and some species, such as the <a href="/facts/Ptarmigan/y8bkRJKs">ptarmigans</a>, have legs which are entirely covered in feathers; in winter the toes, too, have feathers or small scales on the sides, an adaptation for walking on snow and burrowing into it for shelter. Unlike many other galliforms, they typically have no <a href="/facts/Spur_(zoology)/SH7YTkKk">spurs</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> although turkeys do possess very prominent spurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="feeding-and-habits">Feeding and habits</h2> <p>Grouse feed mainly on vegetation—buds, <a href="/facts/Catkin/PPE9klav">catkins</a>, leaves, and twigs—which typically accounts for over 95% of adults' food by weight. Thus, their diets vary greatly with the seasons. Hatchlings eat mostly insects and other <a href="/facts/Invertebrate/3CyqCVnN">invertebrates</a>, gradually reducing their proportion of animal food to adult levels. Several of the forest-living species are notable for eating large quantities of <a href="/facts/Conifer/vDUgqxCx">conifer</a> needles, which most other <a href="/facts/Vertebrate/tT54FSTT">vertebrates</a> refuse. To digest vegetable food, grouse have big <a href="/facts/Crop_(anatomy)/apM1PvqM">crops</a> and <a href="/facts/Gizzard/xGEzIoA5">gizzards</a>, eat grit to break up food, and have long <a href="/facts/Intestine/nK2zwqBS">intestines</a> with well-developed <a href="/facts/Caecum/SysL1JXX">caeca</a> in which <a href="/facts/Symbiosis/MrBArRGa">symbiotic</a> bacteria digest <a href="/facts/Cellulose/wYPafTU0">cellulose</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Forest/RnMtb31v">Forest</a> species flock only in autumn and winter, though individuals tolerate each other when they meet. <a href="/facts/Prairie/nJNHWdGs">Prairie</a> species are more social, and <a href="/facts/Tundra/BqC0AQ7u">tundra</a> species (ptarmigans, <i><a href="/facts/Lagopus/y8bkRJKs">Lagopus</a></i>) are the most social, forming flocks of up to 100 in winter. All grouse spend most of their time on the ground, though when alarmed, they may take off in a flurry and go into a long glide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p><p>Most species stay within their breeding range all year, but make short seasonal movements; many individuals of the <a href="/facts/Rock_ptarmigan/jHBacoKg">ptarmigan</a> (called rock ptarmigan in the US) and <a href="/facts/Willow_grouse/GpJxSWfH">willow grouse</a> (called willow ptarmigan in the US) <a href="/facts/Bird_migration/GvraPhgn">migrate</a> hundreds of kilometers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="reproduction">Reproduction</h2> <p>In all but one species (the <a href="/facts/Willow_ptarmigan/GpJxSWfH">willow ptarmigan</a>), males are <a href="/facts/Animal_sexuality/GktQeSLQ">polygamous</a>. Many species have elaborate <a href="/facts/Courtship_display/U8Jl6SFq">courtship displays</a> on the ground at dawn and dusk, which in some are given in <a href="/facts/Lek_(biology)/8XLxKDbm">leks</a>. The displays feature males' brightly colored <a href="/facts/Comb_(anatomy)/FPnDW1o8">combs</a> and in some species, brightly colored inflatable sacs on the sides of their necks. The males display their <a href="/facts/Plumage/7QrTsra5">plumage</a>, give vocalizations that vary widely between species, and may engage in other activities, such as drumming or fluttering their wings, rattling their tails, and making display flights. Occasionally, males fight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>The nest is a shallow depression or <a href="/facts/Bird_nest/8pU1Fxf0">scrape</a> on the ground—often in cover—with a scanty lining of plant material. The female lays one <a href="/facts/Clutch_(eggs)/suAybckh">clutch</a>, but may replace it if the eggs are lost. She begins to lay about a week after mating and lays one egg every day or two; the clutch comprises five to 12 eggs. The eggs have the shape of hen's eggs and are pale yellow, sparsely spotted with brown. On laying the second-last or last egg, the female starts 21 to 28 days of incubation. Chicks hatch in dense, yellow-brown down and leave the nest immediately. They soon develop feathers and can fly shortly before they are two weeks old. The female (and the male in the willow grouse) stays with them and protects them until their first autumn, when they reach their mature weights (except in the male <a href="/facts/Capercaillie/9QXcI34y">capercaillies</a>). They are sexually mature the following spring, but often do not mate until later years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="populations">Populations</h2> <p>Grouse make up a considerable part of the vertebrate <a href="/facts/Biomass_(ecology)/A5rDsUax">biomass</a> in the Arctic and Subarctic. Their numbers may fall sharply in years of bad weather or high predator populations—significant grouse populations are a major food source for <a href="/facts/Lynx/Ww7zLbsI">lynx</a>, <a href="/facts/Fox/0oeJleEN">foxes</a>, <a href="/facts/Marten/8jrr4TDM">martens</a>, and <a href="/facts/Bird_of_prey/AAfSeYT3">birds of prey</a>. </p><p>The three tundra species have maintained their former numbers. The prairie and forest species have declined greatly because of habitat loss, though popular game birds such as the <a href="/facts/Red_grouse/2qtjn2zo">red grouse</a> and the <a href="/facts/Ruffed_grouse/YE8F6aKj">ruffed grouse</a> have benefited from habitat management. Most grouse species are listed by the <a href="/facts/IUCN/QwV8JXup">IUCN</a> as "least concern" or "near threatened", but the <a href="/facts/Greater_prairie_chicken/TGog5Ked">greater</a> and <a href="/facts/Lesser_prairie_chicken/sxoySLP4">lesser prairie chicken</a> are listed as "vulnerable" and the <a href="/facts/Gunnison_grouse/DxNrhnPc">Gunnison grouse</a> is listed as "endangered". Some subspecies, such as Attwater's prairie chicken and the <a href="/facts/Cantabrian_capercaillie/2jMEuclt">Cantabrian capercaillie</a>, and some national and regional populations are also in danger.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> The wild turkey precipitously declined before returning to abundance, even in developed areas. </p> <h2 id="sexual-size-dimorphism">Sexual size dimorphism</h2> <h3>Male size selection</h3> <p>The phenotypic difference between males and females is called <a href="/facts/Sexual_dimorphism/nx9wulFy">sexual dimorphism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> Male grouse tend to be larger than female grouse,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> which seems to hold true across all the species of grouse, with some difference within each species in terms of how drastic the size difference is.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> The hypothesis with the most supporting evidence for the evolution of sexual dimorphism in grouse is sexual selection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> Sexual selection favors large males; stronger selection for larger size in males leads to greater size dimorphism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> Female size will increase correspondingly as male size increases, and this is due to heredity (but not to the extent of the male size).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> This is because females that are smaller will still be able to reproduce without a substantial disadvantage, but this is not the case with males.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> The largest among the male grouse (commonly dubbed 'Biggrouse') attract the greatest numbers of females during their mating seasons. </p> <h3>Mating behavior selection</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Lek_mating/8XLxKDbm">Lek mating</a></p> <p>Male grouse display <a href="/facts/Lek_mating/8XLxKDbm">lekking</a> behavior, which is when many males come together in one area and put on displays to attract females.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> Females selectively choose among the males present for traits they find more appealing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> Male grouse exhibit two types: typical lekking and exploded lekking.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> In typical lekking, males display in small areas defending a limited territory, and in exploded lekking, displaying males are covered over an expansive land area and share larger territories.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> Male grouse can also compete with one another for access to female grouse through territoriality, in which a male defends a territory which has resources that females need, like food and nest sites.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> These differences in male behavior in mating systems account for the evolution of body size in grouse.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Males of territorial species were smaller than those of exploded lekking species, and males of typical lekking species were the largest overall.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> The male birds that exhibit lekking behavior, and have to compete with other males for females to choose them, have greater sexual dimorphism in size.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> This suggests the hypothesis of sexual selection affecting male body size and also gives an explanation for why some species of grouse have a more drastic difference between male and female body size than others. </p> <h3>Contrast with other bird species</h3> <p>Sexual size dimorphism can manifest itself differently between grouse and other birds. In some cases, the female is dominant over the male in breeding behavior, which can result in females that are larger than the males.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="in-culture">In culture</h2> <p>Grouse are <a href="/facts/Game_(food)/2l9PGr3X">game</a>, and hunters kill millions each year for food, sport, and other uses. In the United Kingdom, this takes the form of <a href="/facts/Driven_grouse_shooting/sxI3Jzck">driven grouse shooting</a>. The male <a href="/facts/Black_grouse/ja3JCPh2">black grouse</a>'s tail feathers are a traditional ornament for hats in areas such as <a href="/facts/Scotland/VGwbbxB2">Scotland</a> and the <a href="/facts/Alps/Q3zdQId4">Alps</a>. Folk dances from the Alps to the North American prairies imitate the displays of lekking males.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="species">Species</h2> <h3>Extant genera</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th>Image</th><th>Genus</th><th>Extant Species</th></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Koklass_pheasant/uDHP1WEl">Pucrasia</a></i> – koklass pheasant<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a></td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Koklass_pheasant/uDHP1WEl">Koklass pheasant</a>, <i>Pucrasia macrolopha</i></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Turkey_(bird)/wcWbq1PN">Meleagris</a></i> – turkeys<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a></td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Wild_turkey/8mffpGov">Wild turkey</a>, <i>Meleagris gallopavo</i></li><li><a href="/facts/Ocellated_turkey/pjIWrRmT">Ocellated turkey</a>, <i>Meleagris ocellata</i></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Ruffed_grouse/YE8F6aKj">Bonasa</a></i> – ruffed grouse</td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Ruffed_grouse/YE8F6aKj">Ruffed grouse</a>, <i>Bonasa umbellus</i></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Spruce_grouse/LxRKMEYD">Canachites</a></i> – spruce grouse</td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Spruce_grouse/LxRKMEYD">Spruce grouse</a>, <i>Canachites canadensis</i><ul><li><a href="/facts/Franklin%2527s_grouse/IWKD4UJg">Franklin's grouse</a>, <i>C. c. franklinii</i></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Dendragapus/6WJXrfg5">Dendragapus</a></i> – blue grouse</td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Sooty_grouse/qp7wogc0">Sooty grouse</a>, <i>Dendragapus fuliginosus</i></li><li><a href="/facts/Dusky_grouse/lbShnwpS">Dusky grouse</a>, <i>Dendragapus obscurus</i></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Centrocercus/wqDRJRIl">Centrocercus</a></i> – sage grouse</td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Gunnison_grouse/DxNrhnPc">Gunnison grouse</a>, <i>Centrocercus minimus</i></li><li><a href="/facts/Greater_sage-grouse/jkS1BU69">Greater sage-grouse</a>, <i>Centrocercus urophasianus</i></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Tympanuchus/k21jrr0f">Tympanuchus</a></i> – prairie grouse</td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Greater_prairie_chicken/TGog5Ked">Greater prairie chicken</a>, <i>Tympanuchus cupido</i><ul><li><a href="/facts/Attwater%2527s_prairie_chicken/4MvhGYd5">Attwater's prairie chicken</a>, <i>T. c. attwateri</i></li><li>†<a href="/facts/Heath_hen/TPbzFDpJ">Heath hen</a>, <i>T. c. cupido</i></li></ul></li><li><a href="/facts/Lesser_prairie_chicken/sxoySLP4">Lesser prairie chicken</a> <i>Tympanuchus pallidicinctus</i></li><li><a href="/facts/Sharp-tailed_grouse/b2PpF7ul">Sharp-tailed grouse</a>, <i>Tympanuchus phasianellus</i><ul><li><a href="/facts/Columbian_sharp-tailed_grouse/WoVgTWdk">Columbian sharp-tailed grouse</a>, <i>T. p. columbianus</i></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Tetrastes/pBAmh13o">Tetrastes</a></i> – hazel grouse</td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Hazel_grouse/TpcdmNg7">Hazel grouse</a>, <i>Tetrastes bonasia</i></li><li><a href="/facts/Chinese_grouse/aaThXJmr">Chinese grouse</a>, <i>Tetrastes sewerzowi</i></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Lagopus/y8bkRJKs">Lagopus</a></i> – ptarmigans</td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Willow_ptarmigan/GpJxSWfH">Willow ptarmigan</a>, <i>Lagopus lagopus</i><ul><li><a href="/facts/Red_grouse/2qtjn2zo">Red grouse</a>, <i>L. l. scotica</i></li></ul></li><li><a href="/facts/White-tailed_ptarmigan/qYoShaQ3">White-tailed ptarmigan</a>, <i>Lagopus leucura</i></li><li><a href="/facts/Rock_ptarmigan/jHBacoKg">Rock ptarmigan</a>, <i>Lagopus muta</i></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Falcipennis/CGEfbB5d">Falcipennis</a> –</i> Siberian grouse</td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Siberian_grouse/LdzMxjq7">Siberian grouse</a>, <i>Falcipennis falcipennis</i></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Tetrao/VhfRl1Yj">Tetrao</a></i> – capercaillies</td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Black-billed_capercaillie/RHbtpRrU">Black-billed capercaillie</a>, <i>Tetrao urogalloides</i></li><li><a href="/facts/Western_capercaillie/9QXcI34y">Western capercaillie</a>, <i>Tetrao urogallus</i><ul><li><a href="/facts/Cantabrian_capercaillie/2jMEuclt">Cantabrian capercaillie</a>, <i>T. u. cantabricus</i></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Lyrurus/HF97k8Mw">Lyrurus</a></i> – black grouse</td><td><ul><li><a href="/facts/Caucasian_grouse/fhpoPvT1">Caucasian grouse</a>, <i>Lyrurus mlokosiewiczi</i></li><li><a href="/facts/Black_grouse/ja3JCPh2">Black grouse</a>, <i>Lyrurus tetrix</i></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Extinct genera</h3> <ul><li>Genus †<i><a href="/facts/Proagriocharis/AIWhQ727">Proagriocharis</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Proagriocharis_kimballensis/AIWhQ727">Proagriocharis kimballensis</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a></li></ul></li> <li>Genus †<i><a href="/facts/Rhegminornis/3TUUEA5d">Rhegminornis</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Rhegminornis/3TUUEA5d">Rhegminornis calobates</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a></li></ul></li></ul> <h3>Footnotes</h3> <h3>Notes</h3> <h3>General</h3> <ul><li>De Juana, E. (1994). <a href="https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/376">"Family Tetraonidae (Grouse)"</a>. In del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. (eds.). <i>Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 2. New World Vultures to Guineafowl</i>. Barcelona: <a href="/facts/Lynx_Edicions/qA302GT3">Lynx Edicions</a>. pp. <a href="https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/376">376–411</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-84-87334-15-3.</li> <li><a href="https://theuplandhunter.com/ruffed-grouse-eat-spring-fall-winter/">"What Do Grouse Eat?"</a>. The Upland Hunter. 1 September 2017.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tetraoninae. <ul><li><a href="http://ibc.lynxeds.com/family/grouse-tetraonidae">Grouse videos</a> on the Internet Bird Collection</li> <li>Johnsgard, P. (1982). <a href="http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/johnsgard/16/">"Etho-Ecological Apects of Hybridization in the Tetraonidae"</a>. <i>World Pheasant Association Journal</i>. VII: 42–57.</li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Grouse">"Grouse" </a>. <i><a href="/facts/New_International_Encyclopedia/k0NUmBoF">New International Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1905.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Gutiérrez, R. J.; Barrowclough, G. F.; Groth, J. G. (2000). "A classification of the grouse (Aves: Tetroninae) based on mitochondrial DNA sequences" (PDF). Wildlife Biology. 6 (4): 205–212. doi:10.2981/wlb.2000.017. S2CID 85807603. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-03-27. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150327211714/http://fwcb.cfans.umn.edu/research/owls/lit%20folder/gutierrez%20et%20al.%202000.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20150327211714/http://fwcb.cfans.umn.edu/research/owls/lit%20folder/gutierrez%20et%20al.%202000.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"AOU Checklist of North and Middle American Birds". American Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 2014-03-13. <a href="http://checklist.aou.org/taxa/" target="_blank">http://checklist.aou.org/taxa/</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Tetraoninae". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 2013-03-13. <a href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=553485" target="_blank">https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=553485</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Taxonomic Updates – IOC World Bird List". Retrieved 2021-08-01. <a href="https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/updates/taxonomy/" target="_blank">https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/updates/taxonomy/</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Boyd, John. "Phasianidae: Turkeys, Grouse, Pheasants, Partridges". Aves – A taxonomy in flux. Retrieved 2014-03-13. <a href="http://jboyd.net/Taxo/List2.html#phasianidae" target="_blank">http://jboyd.net/Taxo/List2.html#phasianidae</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Kimball, Rebecca T.; Hosner, Peter A.; Braun, Edward L. (2021-05-01). "A phylogenomic supermatrix of Galliformes (Landfowl) reveals biased branch lengths". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 158: 107091. Bibcode:2021MolPE.15807091K. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107091. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 33545275. S2CID 231963063. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321000245" target="_blank">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1055790321000245</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Rands, Michael R.W. (1991). Forshaw, Joseph (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds. London: Merehurst Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-85391-186-6. <a href="978-1-85391-186-6" target="_blank">978-1-85391-186-6</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Storch, Ilse; Bendell, J. F. (2003). "Grouse". In Perrins, Christopher (ed.). The Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds. Firefly Books. pp. 184–187. ISBN 978-1-55297-777-4. <a href="978-1-55297-777-4" target="_blank">978-1-55297-777-4</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Gutiérrez, R. J.; Barrowclough, G. F.; Groth, J. G. (2000). "A classification of the grouse (Aves: Tetroninae) based on mitochondrial DNA sequences" (PDF). Wildlife Biology. 6 (4): 205–212. doi:10.2981/wlb.2000.017. S2CID 85807603. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-03-27. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150327211714/http://fwcb.cfans.umn.edu/research/owls/lit%20folder/gutierrez%20et%20al.%202000.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20150327211714/http://fwcb.cfans.umn.edu/research/owls/lit%20folder/gutierrez%20et%20al.%202000.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Storch, Ilse; Bendell, J. F. (2003). "Grouse". In Perrins, Christopher (ed.). The Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds. Firefly Books. pp. 184–187. 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ISBN 978-1-55297-777-4. <a href="978-1-55297-777-4" target="_blank">978-1-55297-777-4</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Traditionally excluded, but recent phylogenomic data have suggested a close alliance; these species can thus be regarded as basal Tetraonini, but treatment still varies.[1] <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Traditionally excluded, but recent phylogenomic data have suggested a close alliance; these species can thus be regarded as basal Tetraonini, but treatment still varies.[1] <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Larry D. Martin; James Tate, Jr. (1970). "A new turkey from the Pliocene of Nebraska" <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Extinct species, late Miocene and early Pliocene. <a href="/wiki/Miocene" target="_blank">/wiki/Miocene</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Traditionally excluded, but recent phylogenomic data have suggested a close alliance; these species can thus be regarded as basal Tetraonini, but treatment still varies.[1] <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Storrs L. Olson; John Farrand, Jr. (1974). "Rhegminornis restudies: a tiny Miocene turkey" <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>"BioLib: Biological library". <a href="https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id469956/" target="_blank">https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id469956/</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Extinct species, early Miocene. <a href="/wiki/Miocene" target="_blank">/wiki/Miocene</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Traditionally excluded, but recent phylogenomic data have suggested a close alliance; these species can thus be regarded as basal Tetraonini, but treatment still varies.[1] <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>