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Michael Barkun
open-in-new
<h2 id="education">Education</h2> <p>Barkun earned his <a href="/facts/Ph.D./paJumdN8">Ph.D.</a> from Northwestern University in 1965.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="research-on-conspiracy-theories">Research on conspiracy theories</h2> <p>Barkun has classified conspiracy theories into three kinds: </p> <ul><li><i>Event conspiracy theories</i>: This refers to limited and well-defined events. Examples may include such conspiracy theories as those concerning the <a href="/facts/Kennedy_assassination_conspiracies/NsfxD6jR">assassination of J. F. Kennedy</a>, the <a href="/facts/September_11_attacks/PfWQcQNx">September 11 attacks</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Discredited_AIDS_origins_theories/4INUAfdj">origins and spread of HIV/AIDS</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></li> <li><i>Systemic conspiracy theories</i>: The conspiracy is believed to have broad goals, usually conceived as securing control of a country, a region, or even the entire world. The goals are sweeping, whilst the conspiratorial machinery is generally simple: a single, evil organization implements a plan to infiltrate and subvert existing institutions. This is a common scenario in conspiracy theories that focus on the alleged machinations of <a href="/facts/Judeo-Masonic_conspiracy_theory/zhb6sYIa">Jews</a>, <a href="/facts/Masonic_conspiracy_theories/CFBMCTHp">Freemasons</a>, <a href="/facts/Red_Scare/vrgAU8Wk">communists</a>, or the <a href="/facts/Vatican_conspiracy_theories/GD2nfm5I">Catholic Church</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></li> <li><i>Superconspiracy theories</i>: For Barkun, such theories link multiple alleged conspiracies together hierarchically. At the summit is a distant but all-powerful evil force. His cited examples are the ideas of <a href="/facts/David_Icke/Jkb3559l">David Icke</a> and <a href="/facts/Milton_William_Cooper/hcll1ceg">Milton William Cooper</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></li></ul> <p>Barkun discusses four types of groups categorized by the nature of secrecy involved: a Type 1 conspiracy theory refers to a secret group which acts secretly, and a Type 3 conspiracy theory refers to a known group which acts secretly (Types 2 and 4 lie outside of conspiracy theory). </p> <h3><i>A Culture of Conspiracy</i></h3> <p>In his book <i><a href="/facts/A_Culture_of_Conspiracy%3a_Apocalyptic_Visions_in_Contemporary_America/Q6AT6YQk">A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America</a></i> (2003), Barkun dives into the different characteristics of conspiracy theories. According to him, there are certain attributes that occur in every account of conspiracy. First, conspiracy negates the possibility that something could happen by chance. Nothing in a conspiracist worldview is ever due to chance. Conspiracy theories are created at the root of the statement that nothing happens by accident. </p><p>Barkun states that in this view the universe is governed by design rather than randomness, which means that there is no room for accidents, everything is intentional. Secondly, when it comes to conspiracy, nothing is as it seems. Conspiracists have to disguise their true intentions and identities through deception. Therefore, according to conspiracy theorists, the appearance of innocence means nothing. Lastly, in conspiracy, everything is connected. Working hand in hand with the claim that nothing is left up to chance, the claim that everything is connected means that patterns are created everywhere in response. Constant linkage and connection must be created to explain what may seem like accidental. </p><p>Furthermore, Barkun works to set the stage for the presence of conspiracist views that leave a large amount of questions unanswered. All three of these characteristics can be applied to both political and government conspiracies, but also more causally to all types of conspiracy theories. </p> <h2 id="works">Works</h2> <ul><li><i>United Nations System and Its Functions: Selected Readings</i> (1968; co-edited with Robert W. Gregg). Published in <a href="/facts/Princeton%2c_NJ/fceTzdde">Princeton, NJ</a> by <a href="/facts/David_Van_Nostrand/SBWcDeMm">Van Nostrand</a> as a 460-page hardcover and paperback. A part of the Van Nostrand political science series.</li> <li><i>Law Without Sanctions: Order in Primitive Societies and the World Community</i> (1968). Published by <a href="/facts/Yale_University_Press/oavMPaT7">Yale University Press</a> as a 179-page hardcover.</li> <li><i>International Law and the Social Sciences</i> (1970; with Wesley L. Gould). Published by <a href="/facts/Princeton_University_Press/kwvFlKEj">Princeton University Press</a> as a 338-page hardcover (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0691075301).</li> <li><i>Social Science Literature: A Bibliography for International Law</i> (1972; with Wesley L. Gould). Published in <a href="/facts/Princeton%2c_NJ/fceTzdde">Princeton, NJ</a> for the <a href="/facts/American_Society_of_International_Law/B6absyEo">American Society of International Law</a> by <a href="/facts/Princeton_University_Press/kwvFlKEj">Princeton University Press</a> as a 662-page hardcover (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0691092257). It was republished in paperback in 2015 as part of the Princeton Legacy Library series (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0691619514).</li> <li><i>Law and the Social System</i> (1973; as editor). Published in New York by Lieber-Atherton as a 128-page hardcover (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0883110067) and paperback (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0883110075).</li> <li><i>Disaster and the Millennium</i> (1974). Published in <a href="/facts/New_Haven/dRanslgz">New Haven</a> by <a href="/facts/Yale_University_Press/oavMPaT7">Yale University Press</a> as a 246-page hardcover (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0300017251). It was re-published in paperback in 1986 by <a href="/facts/Syracuse_University_Press/8EB2DvSs">Syracuse University Press</a> (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0815623925).</li> <li><i>Crucible of the Millennium: Burned-Over District of New York in the 1840s</i> (1986) Published by <a href="/facts/Syracuse_University_Press/8EB2DvSs">Syracuse University Press</a> as a 194-page hardcover (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0815623712) and paperback (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 081562378X).</li> <li><i>Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement</i> (1994). Published in <a href="/facts/Chapel_Hill%2c_NC/EmMmaTFt">Chapel Hill, NC</a> by <a href="/facts/The_University_of_North_Carolina_Press/xGaCMfdT">The University of North Carolina Press</a> as a 290-page hardcover (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0807821454) and paperback (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0807844519). A revised edition was published in 1997 as a 330-page hardcover (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0807823287) and paperback (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0807846384).</li> <li><i>Millennialism and Violence</i> (1996; as editor). Published in London and <a href="/facts/Portland%2c_OR/wwBx1Hrv">Portland, OR</a> by <a href="/facts/Routledge/aSwcES11">F. Cass</a> as a 177-page hardcover (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 071464708X) and paperback (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0714642509). It was the second in the Cass series on political violence.</li> <li>Barkun, Michael (2003). <i>Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America</i>. <a href="/facts/Berkeley%2c_CA/WBVjzd5l">Berkeley, CA</a>: <a href="/facts/University_of_California_Press/r11UnrYP">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0520238052. A 243-page hardcover book. It was the 15th book in the Comparative Studies in Religion and Society series. A 251-page paperback edition was published in 2006 (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0520248120). A second edition was published in 2013 as a 320-page paperback (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0520276825).</li> <li><i>Chasing Phantoms: Reality, Imagination, and Homeland Security Since 9/11</i> (2011). Published by <a href="/facts/The_University_of_North_Carolina_Press/xGaCMfdT">The University of North Carolina Press</a> as a 208-page hardcover (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780807834701). A paperback edition was published in 2014 (<a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1469622262).</li> <li>Barkun, Michael (October 2016). Campion-Vincent, Véronique; Renard, Jean-Bruno (eds.). "Conspiracy Theories as Stigmatized Knowledge". <i><a href="/facts/Diogenes_(journal)/gc0UfVxL">Diogenes</a></i>. 62 (3–4: <i>Conspiracy Theories Today</i>). <a href="/facts/SAGE_Publications/myamBVEB">SAGE Publications</a> on behalf of the <a href="/facts/International_Council_for_Philosophy_and_Humanistic_Studies/6JKWJ2HG">International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies</a>: 114–120. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0392192116669288">10.1177/0392192116669288</a>. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0392-1921">0392-1921</a>. <a href="/facts/LCCN_(identifier)/5hb5Cw2V">LCCN</a> <a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/55003452">55003452</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:152217672">152217672</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.c-span.org/video/?180937-2/book-discussion-culture-conspiracy">Book Discussion on <i>A Culture of Conspiracy</i></a>. Interview by <a href="/facts/Brian_Lamb/gsQhtQkI">Brian Lamb</a> on <a href="/facts/C-SPAN/MdgMU5eM">C-SPAN</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/Washington_Journal/RPdQeSvF">Washington Journal</a></i> (March 12, 2004)</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Michael Barkun faculty listing". Maxwell School of Syracuse University. March 17, 2009. Archived from the original on October 22, 2020. Retrieved June 13, 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201022183509/https://www.maxwell.syr.edu/faculty.aspx?id=6442451250" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20201022183509/https://www.maxwell.syr.edu/faculty.aspx?id=6442451250</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Barkun, Michael (2002). "Project Megiddo, the FBI, and the Academic Community". In Kaplan, Jeffrey (ed.). Millennial Violence: Past, Present and Future. Routledge. pp. 100, 103. ISBN 9781135316266. Retrieved June 15, 2015. <a href="9781135316266" target="_blank">9781135316266</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Berlet, Chip (September 2004). "Interview: Michael Barkun". New Internationalist. Political Research Associates. Retrieved June 15, 2015. <a href="/wiki/Chip_Berlet" target="_blank">/wiki/Chip_Berlet</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>McLemee, Scott (November 6, 1994). "Aryan and Proud". The New York Times. Retrieved June 15, 2015. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/06/books/aryan-and-proud.html" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/06/books/aryan-and-proud.html</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Pipes, Daniel (January 13, 2004). "Old Conspiracies, New Beliefs". The New York Sun. Retrieved June 15, 2015. <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Pipes" target="_blank">/wiki/Daniel_Pipes</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Pratt, Ray (Spring 2005). "Review of A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America". The Montana Professor. Retrieved June 15, 2015. <a href="http://mtprof.msun.edu/Spr2005/pratrev.html" target="_blank">http://mtprof.msun.edu/Spr2005/pratrev.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Daschkea, Dereck (2006). "A Review of A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America". Terrorism and Political Violence. 18 (4): 608–609. doi:10.1080/09546550601000322. S2CID 147339483. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Boyer, Paul S. (July 27, 2004). "The Strange World of Conspiracy Theories". The Christian Century. pp. 32–35. Archived from the original on March 10, 2013. Retrieved June 15, 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130310080017/http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3075" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130310080017/http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=3075</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>"Michael Barkun faculty listing". Maxwell School of Syracuse University. March 17, 2009. Archived from the original on October 22, 2020. Retrieved June 13, 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201022183509/https://www.maxwell.syr.edu/faculty.aspx?id=6442451250" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20201022183509/https://www.maxwell.syr.edu/faculty.aspx?id=6442451250</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Barkun 2003, p. 6. - Barkun, Michael (2003). Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0520238052. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Barkun 2003, p. 6. - Barkun, Michael (2003). Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0520238052. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Barkun 2003, p. 6. - Barkun, Michael (2003). Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 0520238052. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>