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Wood ash
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<h2 id="composition">Composition</h2> <h3>Variability in assessment</h3> <p>A comprehensive set of analyses of wood ash composition from many tree species has been carried out by Emil Wolff,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> among others. Several factors have a major impact on the composition:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> </p> <ol><li>Fine ash: Some studies include the solids escaping via the flue during combustion, while others do not.</li> <li>Temperature of combustion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> Ash content yield decreases with increasing combustion temperature which produces two direct effects:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> <ul><li>Dissociation: Conversion of carbonates, sulfides, etc., to oxides results in no carbon, sulfur, carbonates, or sulfides. Some metallic oxides (e.g. <a href="/facts/Mercuric_oxide/uE9xSlQe">mercuric oxide</a>) even dissociate to their elemental state and/or vaporize completely at wood fire temperatures (600 °C (1,112 °F).)</li> <li>Volatilization: In studies in which the escaped ash is not measured, some combustion products may not be present at all. Arsenic for example is not volatile, but <a href="/facts/Arsenic_trioxide/YhlrDAg7">arsenic trioxide</a> is (boiling point: 465 °C (869 °F)).</li></ul></li> <li>Experimental process: If the ashes are exposed to the environment between combustion and the analysis, oxides may convert back to carbonates by reacting with <a href="/facts/Carbon_dioxide/xGzpppEp">carbon dioxide</a> in the air. <a href="/facts/Hygroscopic/1NBGewXv">Hygroscopic</a> substances meanwhile may absorb atmospheric moisture.</li> <li>Type, age, and growing environment of the wood stock affect the composition of the wood (e.g. <a href="/facts/Hardwood/KQT6MN8W">hardwood</a> and <a href="/facts/Softwood/wnwmPJU0">softwood</a>), and thus the ash. Hardwoods usually produce more ash than softwoods<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> with bark and leaves producing more than internal parts of the trunk.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></li></ol> <h3>Measurements</h3> <p>The burning of wood results in about 6–10% ashes on average.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> The residue ash of 0.43 and 1.82 percent of the original mass of burned wood (assuming <a href="/facts/Dry_basis/JmNXkTNh">dry basis</a>, meaning that <a href="/facts/Water/0lkXnJPK">H2O</a> is driven off) is produced for certain woods if it is pyrolized until all <a href="/facts/Volatility_(chemistry)/90r3ep6w">volatiles</a> disappear and it is burned at 350 °C (662 °F) for 8 hours.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> Also the conditions of the combustion affect the composition and amount of the residue ash, thus higher temperature will reduce the ash yield.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h3>Elemental analysis</h3> <p>Typically, wood ash contains the following major elements:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Carbon/ukrgQexo">Carbon</a> (C) — 5–30%.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Calcium/hf252CC0">Calcium</a> (Ca) — 7–33%</li> <li><a href="/facts/Potassium/FWPwS7Rj">Potassium</a> (K) — 3–10%</li> <li><a href="/facts/Magnesium/XyIhd2FG">Magnesium</a> (Mg) — 1–2%</li> <li><a href="/facts/Manganese/j9ELd1TL">Manganese</a> (Mn) — 0.3–1.3%</li> <li><a href="/facts/Phosphorus/27xCeIqs">Phosphorus</a> (P) — 0.3–1.4%</li> <li><a href="/facts/Sodium/eYuSPu2V">Sodium</a> (Na) — 0.2–0.5%.</li></ul> <h3>Chemical compounds</h3> <p>As the wood burns, it produces different compounds depending on the temperature used. Some studies cite <a href="/facts/Calcium_carbonate/UQ1wLFna">calcium carbonate</a> (CaCO3) as the major constituent, others find no carbonate at all but <a href="/facts/Calcium_oxide/Wh9C8l7j">calcium oxide</a> (CaO) instead. The latter is produced at higher temperatures (see <a href="/facts/Calcination/hghqlHwo">calcination</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Equilibrium_reaction/y8ToYXHp">equilibrium reaction</a> CaCO3 → CO2 + CaO has its equilibrium shifted leftward at 750 °C (1,380 °F) and high CO2 <a href="/facts/Partial_pressure/sRw2hj4G">partial pressure</a> (such as in a wood fire) but shifted rightward at 900 °C (1,650 °F) or when CO2 partial pressure is reduced.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>Much of wood ash contains <a href="/facts/Calcium_carbonate/UQ1wLFna">calcium carbonate</a> (CaCO3) as its major component, representing 25%<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> or even 45% of total ash weight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> At 600 °C (1,112 °F) CaCO3 and K2CO3 were identified in one case.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Less than 10% is <a href="/facts/Potash/4e2vBL9L">potash</a>, and less than 1% is <a href="/facts/Phosphate/FDGVCxUG">phosphate</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <h3>Trace elements</h3> <p>There are trace elements of <a href="/facts/Iron/QK1JYy8E">iron</a> (Fe), <a href="/facts/Manganese/j9ELd1TL">manganese</a> (Mn), <a href="/facts/Zinc/80b1qgk3">zinc</a> (Zn), <a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">copper</a> (Cu) and some <a href="/facts/Heavy_metals/Cblmy8qI">heavy metals</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Their concentrations in ash vary due to combustion temperature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Decomposition of <a href="/facts/Carbonate/FES1QHkN">carbonates</a> and the volatilization of <a href="/facts/Potassium/FWPwS7Rj">potassium</a> (K), <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulfur</a> (S), and trace amounts of <a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">copper</a> (Cu) and <a href="/facts/Boron/Pmwgd7Mf">boron</a> (B) may result from increased temperature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> The study has found that at raised temperature K, S, B, sodium (Na) and copper (Cu) decreased, whereas Mg, P, Mn, Al, Fe, and Si did not change relative to calcium (Ca). All of these trace elements are, however, present in the form of <a href="/facts/Oxide/DXtoVe1C">oxides</a> at higher temperature of combustion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Some elements in wood ash (all fractions given in mass of elements per mass of ash) include:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a>: 304 </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Iron/QK1JYy8E">Fe</a> 1.6-55 <a href="/facts/Per_mille/3xNDvE9l">‰</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Silicon/cgWx0hdr">Si</a> 6-170 ‰</li> <li><a href="/facts/Aluminum/7wmR8jYE">Al</a> 1.2-45 ‰</li> <li><a href="/facts/Manganese/j9ELd1TL">Mn</a> 1-20 ‰</li> <li><a href="/facts/Arsenic/k1c4f44D">As</a> 0.6-50 <a href="/facts/Parts_per_million/PozRuoLM">ppm</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cadmium/wXkV2eIX">Cd</a> 0.18-60 <a href="/facts/Parts_per_million/PozRuoLM">ppm</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Lead/EYljasJN">Pb</a> 2-500 <a href="/facts/Parts_per_million/PozRuoLM">ppm</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Chromium/6sVk6Uu7">Cr</a> 12-280 <a href="/facts/Parts_per_million/PozRuoLM">ppm</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Nickel/KwMCHYRP">Ni</a> 10-140 <a href="/facts/Parts_per_million/PozRuoLM">ppm</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Vanadium/UvKkKTSm">V</a> 1.8-120 <a href="/facts/Parts_per_million/PozRuoLM">ppm</a></li></ul> <h3>Fuels</h3> <p>One study has determined that a slowly burning wood (100–200 °C (212–392 °F) ) emissions typically include 16 <a href="/facts/Cis%25E2%2580%2593trans_isomerism/vqlchJly">alkenes</a>, 5 <a href="/facts/Diene/F5NxrLPW">alkadienes</a>, 5 <a href="/facts/Alkyne/VHI4N5Wo">alkynes</a> and several <a href="/facts/Alkane/Qam7Hvmf">alkanes</a> and <a href="/facts/Aromatic_compound/3EXq8Tgf">arenes</a> in proportions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Ethylene/QMNBYLYn">Ethene</a>, <a href="/facts/Acetylene/yaDh6cmJ">acetylene</a> and <a href="/facts/Benzene/Fguue7nr">benzene</a> were a major part at efficient combustion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> Proportion of C3-C7 <a href="/facts/Alkene/RtYcS6kU">alkenes</a> were found to be higher for smouldering.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> Benzene and 1,3-butadiene constituted ~10–20% and ~1–2% by mass of total non-methane hydrocarbons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="uses">Uses</h2> <h3>Fertilizers</h3> <p>Wood ash can be used as a <a href="/facts/Fertilizer/ysh3r6NJ">fertilizer</a> used to enrich agricultural <a href="/facts/Soil/5Ddpr3QM">soil nutrition</a>. In this role, wood ash serves as a source of <a href="/facts/Potassium/FWPwS7Rj">potassium</a> and <a href="/facts/Calcium_carbonate/UQ1wLFna">calcium carbonate</a>, the latter acting as a <a href="/facts/Liming_(soil)/Wgzp1M3z">liming</a> agent to <a href="/facts/Neutralization_(chemistry)/WC1c5fj1">neutralize</a> <a href="/facts/Soil_pH/D9G9ChcT">acidic soils</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p><p>Wood ash can also be used as an amendment for <a href="/facts/Hydroponics/g96g3ypl">organic hydroponic solutions</a>, generally replacing <a href="/facts/Inorganic_compound/TfFfzxSz">inorganic compounds</a> containing calcium, potassium, magnesium and phosphorus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> <h3>Composts</h3> <p>Wood ash is commonly disposed of in <a href="/facts/Landfill/7K4efGgz">landfills</a>, but with rising disposal costs, ecologically friendly alternatives, such as serving as <a href="/facts/Compost/q6kmXGWU">compost</a> for agricultural and <a href="/facts/Forestry/puvod5MV">forestry</a> applications, are becoming more popular.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> Because wood ash has a high <a href="/facts/Char_(chemistry)/YrRbu7xh">char</a> content, it can be used as an odor control agent, especially in composting operations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p> <h3>Pottery</h3> <p>Wood ash has a very long history of being used in <a href="/facts/Ash_glaze/hhdk8ckp">ceramic glazes</a>, particularly in the Chinese, Japanese and Korean traditions, though now used by many craft potters. It acts as a <a href="/facts/Ceramic_flux/f0rj9baE">flux</a>, reducing the melting point of the glaze.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p> <h3>Soaps</h3> <p>For thousands of years, plant or wood ash was leached with water, to yield an impure solution of <a href="/facts/Potassium_carbonate/nLvuwSaT">potassium carbonate</a>. This product could be mixed with oils or fats to produce a soft "<a href="/facts/Soap/S3nJa1oY">soap</a>" or soap like-product, as was done in ancient <a href="/facts/Sumeria/bxRz093q">Sumeria</a>, <a href="/facts/Europe/DTAtrKfh">Europe</a>, and <a href="/facts/Egypt/8Ttg0JwB">Egypt</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> However only certain types of plants could produce a soap that actually lathered.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> Later, medieval European soapmakers treated the wood ash solution with slaked <a href="/facts/Lime_(material)/uMcVXGBM">lime</a>, which contains <a href="/facts/Calcium_hydroxide/Kz2KzRd8">calcium hydroxide</a>, to get a hydroxide-rich solution for soapmaking.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> However it was not until the invention of the <a href="/facts/Leblanc_process/KkEXaIeE">Leblanc process</a> that high quality <a href="/facts/Sodium_hydroxide/xjtdYtq7">sodium hydroxide</a> could be mass produced, rendering obsolete the earlier forms of soap using crude wood or plant ash.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> This was a revolutionary discovery that facilitated the modern soapmaking industry.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p> <h3>Bio-leaching</h3> <p>The <a href="/facts/Ectomycorrhizal/HAgj8brf">ectomycorrhizal</a> fungi <i><a href="/facts/Suillus_granulatus/QTpK4fQF">Suillus granulatus</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Paxillus_involutus/xVjPyIgT">Paxillus involutus</a></i> can release elements from wood ash.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p> <h3>Food preparation</h3> <p>Wood ash is sometimes used in the process of <a href="/facts/Nixtamalization/0LSETjgR">nixtamalization</a>, where certain types of corn (typically <a href="/facts/Maize/lJ6c5xMH">maize</a> or <a href="/facts/Sorghum/D1KNhtdT">sorghum</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> are soaked and cooked in an <a href="/facts/Alkali/s6NqPGSP">alkali</a> solution to improve nutritional content and decrease risk of <a href="/facts/Mycotoxins/11dL2teq">mycotoxins</a>. The alkali solution has historically been made from wood ash lye. </p><p>Nixtamalization was originally practiced in <a href="/facts/Mesoamerica/cFjUFklr">Mesoamerica</a>, from which it spread northwards through various indigenous tribes of North America. In eastern North America, nixtamalized corn was traditionally eaten in porridges and stews, a dish that Europeans would call <a href="/facts/Hominy/TII5Mt1f">hominy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> Wood ash is also used as a preservative for some kinds of cheese, such as Morbier and Humboldt Fog.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p><p>An early <a href="/facts/Leavened_bread/Sr4Ucgfq">leavened bread</a> was baked as early as 6000 BC by the <a href="/facts/Sumerians/bxRz093q">Sumerians</a> by placing the bread on heated stones and covering it with hot ash. The minerals in the wood ash could have supplemented the nutritional content of the dough as it was baked.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> In present day, the amount of wood ash content in <a href="/facts/Bread_flour/dY1Lx5RQ">bread flour</a>, as measured by the <a href="/facts/Chopin_alveograph/vdpJzVUw">Chopin alveograph</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> is strictly regulated by <a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Ash_burner/mxhnEjNT">Ash burner</a> (traditional occupation)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Ashery/UHj08f8D">Ashery</a> – A location or factory producing lye from wood ash</li> <li><a href="/facts/Bottom_ash/dWK680cU">Bottom ash</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Charcoal/tpYGBHTn">Charcoal</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Fly_ash/RrPNlq9t">Fly ash</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Joss_paper/jA6c3VCx">Joss paper</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Open_burning_of_waste/FYsu6ogT">Open burning of waste</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Wood_glue/dQwg4a2d">Wood glue</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Wood_preservative/eLLDnkbE">Wood preservative</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Wood_veneer/HluaU5Yt">Wood veneer</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Wolff, Emil (1871). Aschen-Analysen. Berlin: Wiegandt und Hempel. <a href="https://archive.org/details/aschenanalysenv01wolfgoog" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/aschenanalysenv01wolfgoog</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Siddique, Rafat (2008), "Wood Ash", Waste Materials and By-Products in Concrete, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 303–321, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74294-4_9, ISBN 978-3-540-74293-7, retrieved 24 July 2022 <a href="978-3-540-74293-7" target="_blank">978-3-540-74293-7</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Misra MK, Ragland KW, Baker AJ (1993). "Wood Ash Composition as a Function of Furnace Temperature" (PDF). Biomass and Bioenergy. 4 (2): 103–116. doi:10.1016/0961-9534(93)90032-Y. <a href="http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf1993/misra93a.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf1993/misra93a.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Siddique, Rafat (2008), "Wood Ash", Waste Materials and By-Products in Concrete, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 303–321, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74294-4_9, ISBN 978-3-540-74293-7, retrieved 24 July 2022 <a href="978-3-540-74293-7" target="_blank">978-3-540-74293-7</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Siddique, Rafat (2008), "Wood Ash", Waste Materials and By-Products in Concrete, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 303–321, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74294-4_9, ISBN 978-3-540-74293-7, retrieved 24 July 2022 <a href="978-3-540-74293-7" target="_blank">978-3-540-74293-7</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Siddique, Rafat (2008), "Wood Ash", Waste Materials and By-Products in Concrete, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 303–321, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74294-4_9, ISBN 978-3-540-74293-7, retrieved 24 July 2022 <a href="978-3-540-74293-7" target="_blank">978-3-540-74293-7</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Siddique, Rafat (2008), "Wood Ash", Waste Materials and By-Products in Concrete, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 303–321, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74294-4_9, ISBN 978-3-540-74293-7, retrieved 24 July 2022 <a href="978-3-540-74293-7" target="_blank">978-3-540-74293-7</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Woodchips of different wood species (Aspen, Yellow poplar, White oak, White oak bark, Douglas-fir bark) were pyrolyzed in a closed container in a furnace at 500 °C (932 °F).[3] <a href="/wiki/Aspen" target="_blank">/wiki/Aspen</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Etiegni L, Campbell AG (1991). "Physical and chemical characteristics of wood ash". Bioresource Technology. 37 (2): 173–178. doi:10.1016/0960-8524(91)90207-Z. <a href="/wiki/Bioresource_Technology" target="_blank">/wiki/Bioresource_Technology</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Siddique, Rafat (2008), "Wood Ash", Waste Materials and By-Products in Concrete, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 303–321, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74294-4_9, ISBN 978-3-540-74293-7, retrieved 24 July 2022 <a href="978-3-540-74293-7" target="_blank">978-3-540-74293-7</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>dos Santos, Elvis Vieira; Lima, Michael Douglas Roque; Dantas, Kelly das Graças Fernandes; Carvalho, Fábio Israel Martins; Gonçalves, Delman de Almeida; Silva, Arystides Resende; Sun, Honggang; Ferreira, Marciel José; Bufalino, Lina; Hein, Paulo Ricardo Gherardi; Protásio, Thiago de Paula (29 September 2023). "The Inorganic Composition of Tachigali vulgaris Wood: Implications for Bioenergy and Nutrient Balances of Planted Forests in the Amazonia". BioEnergy Research. 17: 114–128. doi:10.1007/s12155-023-10679-3. ISSN 1939-1242. S2CID 263292916. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-023-10679-3" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-023-10679-3</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Misra MK, Ragland KW, Baker AJ (1993). "Wood Ash Composition as a Function of Furnace Temperature" (PDF). Biomass and Bioenergy. 4 (2): 103–116. doi:10.1016/0961-9534(93)90032-Y. <a href="http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf1993/misra93a.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf1993/misra93a.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Tarun R. Naik; Rudolph N. Kraus & Rakesh Kumar (2001), Wood Ash: A New Source of Pozzolanic Material, Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, College of Engineering and Applied Science, The University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Lerner BR (16 November 2000). "Wood Ash in the Garden". Purdue University, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture. Retrieved 21 October 2023. <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/hla/sites/yardandgarden/wood-ash-in-the-garden/" target="_blank">https://www.purdue.edu/hla/sites/yardandgarden/wood-ash-in-the-garden/</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Hume E (11 April 2006). "Wood Ashes: How to use them in the Garden". Ed Hume Seeds. 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