The Hafsids were a branch of the Almohad ruling class that declared its independence from the Almohads in 1229 as Almohad fortunes were declining in the west. They developed their own state which came to control much of Ifriqiya and some of the surrounding region. They were also significant builders, particularly under the reigns of successful leaders, though not many of their monuments have survived intact to the present-day. While Kairouan remained an important religious center, Tunis was retained as the capital and progressively grew into the main city of the region and the main center of culture and architectural patronage.: 208 The reign of Abu Zakariya (r. 1229–1249), the first Hafsid ruler, was a period of growth and significant building activity. During the 13th century the economy expanded, thanks in part to growing trade with present-day France and Italy.: 208 Andalusi immigrants and refugees, fleeing the advance of the Reconquista in al-Andalus (on the Iberian Peninsula), also immigrated to Ifriqiya in large numbers during the Hafsid period, bringing their own influences to the region's art and culture.: 208 Abu Zakariya's death was followed by nearly a century of political weakness and conflicts,: 208 though his son al-Mustansir (r. 1249–1277) is known for building many rich palaces. In the mid 14th century, the Marinids of Morocco even managed to briefly capture Ifriqiya for several years.: 208
The wealth and power of the Hafsid state was only revived in the later 14th century under the reigns of Abu'l Abbas (r. 1370–1394) and Abu Faris (r. 1394–1434). Abu Faris, in particular, sponsored or encouraged the construction of new religious monuments, palaces, and fortresses, in addition to repairing old monuments and infrastructure. His grandson, Abu 'Amr 'Uthman (r. 1435–1488) improved and expanded water supply systems and sponsored the construction of zawiyas (Sufi religious complexes).: 208 After 'Uthman's death, the challenges to Hafsid rule increased on multiple fronts, including Arab tribesmen, Spanish attempts at expansion in North Africa, and a growing Ottoman presence to the east and west. Hafsid rule was brought to a final end in 1574, when Ifriqiya became a province of the Ottoman Empire.: 208
Unlike Moorish architecture further west in the Maghreb and al-Andalus, Hafsid architecture was built primarily in stone (rather than brick or mudbrick) and it made use of stone vaulting, not common in the more western traditions, and it employed semi-circular arches rather than the typical horseshoe arches of the west. The greater use of stone and lesser use of wood likely reflected the long and continuous tradition of stoneworking in the region since Antiquity, the survival of many Roman remains, and possibly the shorter supply of timber.: 208 The surviving Hafsid monuments also appear to feature less decoration than those in the west, although art historian Jonathan Bloom notes that this observation may be a result of Hafsid decoration simply not surviving up to modern times.: 208 The use of two-coloured (dark and white) marble or masonry is a distinguishing feature of Hafsid architecture that was likely influenced by cultural contacts with contemporary Egypt, which was under Ayyubid and then Mamluk rule. Another distinctive element is the use of stone capitals of a type that originates from acanthus-decorated capitals in Antiquity.
As a result of these and other differences, Hafsid architecture developed in directions that increasingly deviated from architectural trends further west.: 213 Art historian Abdelaziz Daoulatli identifies two main periods of important architectural activity under the Hafsids, corresponding with the two periods of Hafsid political and economic power. The first, in the 13th century, is characterized by the relatively greater influence of Almohad (Maghrebi) and Andalusi artistic styles from the west. The second, in the 15th century, is characterized by the greater influence of Mamluk architecture to the east.
This foundation of the Madrasa al-Shamma῾iyya was followed by many others (almost all of them in Tunis), including the Madrasa al-Hawa (founded in the 1250s), the Madrasa al-Ma'ridiya (1282), and the Madrasa al-Unqiya (1341).: 211 Many of these early madrasas, however, have been poorly preserved or have been considerably modified in the centuries since their foundation.: 209–211 The Madrasa al-Muntasiriya, completed in 1437, is among the best preserved madrasas of the Hafsid period.: 211 Similar in layout in the al-Shamma῾iyya, it has a central rectangular courtyard with a recessed space opening in the middle of each side of the courtyard. One recess leads to the entrance, the one opposite it leads to a nine-bay (nine-domed) prayer hall, and another to a classroom, with the last one now destroyed. No upper floor, if there was one, has been preserved.: 211 This layout seems to be inspired by the classic four-iwan layout found in madrasas of the Middle East, possibly due to Mamluk influence.
Almost nothing of the Hafsid royal palaces have survived to the present day, although some written descriptions are provided by historical writers like Ibn Khaldun. These sources describe a variety of palaces and gardens, many of them built on the outskirts or suburbs of Tunis. One such structure was the Qubbat Asarak, a large pavilion structure with a wide staircase at its entrance, built by al-Mustansir in 1253.: 211–212 Another palace built by the same ruler, the Abu Fihr Palace, was described as an enclosed garden containing a large water basin flanked by two pavilions with marble columns and wooden roofs. Water features were characteristic of earlier Ifriqiyan palaces, while the two pavilions appear to be a feature shared with Andalusi and western Maghrebi architecture of the same era, possibly of Almohad origin.: 212 Yet another palace built by al-Mustansir, the Ras al-Tabiya Palace, was described by a later Flemish writer as having four buildings arranged in a cross formation around a courtyard paved with colourful tiles. A fountain in the center of the courtyard fed four pools around it. This configuration was similar to a riad garden and recalls the layout of the later Badi Palace in Marrakesh.: 312 A vaulted underground passage allowed the women of the harem to travel privately to a park. The Bardo Palace (today a national museum) was also begun by the Hafsids in the 15th century, and is mentioned in historical records for the first time during the reign of Abu Faris.: 208 All of these examples were built on the outskirts of Tunis.
Zawiyas, Sufi religious complexes usually associated with a tomb, began to appear in Ifriqiya during the 14th century, possibly adopting a tradition that already existed in the west. They provided teaching and accommodation for pilgrims to the founder's tomb, as well as other community services. One example is the Zawiya of Sidi 'Abid al-Gharyani in Kairouan, founded and begun in 1324 by Muhammad al-Jadidi, a prominent local Muslim jurist who later died in Mecca. His disciple, Abu Samir 'Abid al-Gharyani, continued teaching at the zawiya after him and was buried here in 1402. The addition of his tomb completed the original construction of the complex, but it has undergone multiple renovations since then. One of the later Hafsid sultans, Mulay Hasan, was buried next to al-Gharyani in the mausoleum chamber. Another example of this kind of complex is the Zawiya of Sidi Ben 'Arus in Tunis, founded in 1490.
The cities of Tunisia were frequently fortified against outside attacks. The Hafsids fortified Tunis and Kairouan and repaired the walls of Sousse and Sfax. Many of the city walls that survived up to modern times were later built or rebuilt during the Ottoman period.: 481–482 Many have since been largely dismantled, including those of Tunis. Only one of the seven former city gates in Tunis, Bab Jedid ("New Gate"), has been preserved today. It was originally opened in 1276 to link the old city with a southern suburb that had been growing as a result of the development of the nearby Kasbah of Tunis. The gate's arched opening remains today but it would have originally been flanked by a defensive tower on either side. Inside, the gate has a bent passage which turns multiple times in order to slow any attackers. A part of the passage is open to the sky, allowing defenders to throw projectiles onto any attackers from above, while the rest of the passage is covered by groin vaults.
The Hafsids renovated and expanded the covered market (bazaar) in the old city of Tunis during the 13th and 14th centuries. One of these covered market streets is the Suq al-'Attarin ("Market of the Perfumers"), which adjoins the Zaytuna Mosque in the heart of the city and consists of three streets covered by brick barrel vaults. The Hafsids also improved waterworks: 208 and built hammams (public baths) and hospitals.
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