Problem structuring methods

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
The term "problem structuring methods" as a label for these techniques began to be used in the 1980s in the field of <a href="/facts/Operations_research/H5yJkV5n">operations research</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> especially after the publication of the book Rational Analysis for a Problematic World: Problem Structuring Methods for Complexity, Uncertainty and Conflict.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> Some of the methods that came to be called PSMs had been in use since the 1960s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>
Thinkers who later came to be recognized as significant early contributors to the theory and practice of PSMs include:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Horst_Rittel/dbvYNtbq">Horst Rittel</a> and <a href="/facts/Melvin_M._Webber/625XemdG">Melvin M. Webber</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Russell_L._Ackoff/1pFENyo7">Russell L. Ackoff</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Peter_Checkland/CIwUbXU4">Peter Checkland</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Colin_Eden/JdfUWDJe">Colin Eden</a> and Fran Ackermann<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Robert_L._Flood/YDYbwjGr">Robert L. Flood</a> and <a href="/facts/Michael_C._Jackson/w6dzwrFY">Michael C. Jackson</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jonathan_Rosenhead/oTdsV8jR">Jonathan Rosenhead</a> and John Mingers<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="types-of-situations-that-call-for-psms">Types of situations that call for PSMs</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Cynefin_framework/gaBotx3N">Cynefin framework § Domains</a>
In discussions of problem structuring methods, it is common to distinguish between two different types of situations that could be considered to be problems.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> Rittel and Webber's distinction between tame problems and <a href="/facts/Wicked_problem/9olMQpQ8">wicked problems</a> (Rittel & Webber 1973) is a well known example of such types.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> The following table lists similar (but not exactly equivalent) distinctions made by a number of thinkers between two types of "problem" situations, which can be seen as a continuum between a left and right extreme:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>

Different types of situations, and thinkers who named them<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a><table><tbody><tr><th>Thinker</th><th>Left extreme</th><th>Right extreme</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Horst_Rittel/dbvYNtbq">Rittel</a> & <a href="/facts/Melvin_M._Webber/625XemdG">Webber</a></td><td>Tame problem</td><td>Wicked problem</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Herbert_A._Simon/NNHhQ2bS">Herbert A. Simon</a></td><td>Programmed decision</td><td>Non-programmed decision</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Russell_L._Ackoff/1pFENyo7">Russell L. Ackoff</a></td><td>Puzzle / Problem</td><td>Mess</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Jerome_Ravetz/5YYuKnk3">Jerome Ravetz</a></td><td>Technical problem</td><td>Practical problem</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Ronald_Heifetz/Fh8Lm9hR">Ronald Heifetz</a></td><td>Technical challenge</td><td>Adaptive challenge</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Peter_Checkland/CIwUbXU4">Peter Checkland</a></td><td>Hard systems</td><td>Soft systems</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Donald_Sch%25C3%25B6n/VLAXzyCq">Donald Schön</a></td><td>The high ground</td><td>The swamp</td></tr><tr><td>Barry Johnson</td><td>Problems to solve</td><td>Polarities to manage</td></tr></tbody></table>
Tame problems (or puzzles or technical challenges) have relatively precise, straightforward formulations that are often amenable to solution with some predetermined technical fix or algorithm. It is clear when these situations have changed in such a way that the problem can be called solved.
Wicked problems (or messes or adaptive challenges) have multiple interacting issues with multiple <a href="/facts/Project_stakeholder/y0en0Bgg">stakeholders</a> and uncertainties and no definitive formulation. These situations are complex and have no <a href="/facts/Stopping_rule/D5R69WXt">stopping rule</a> and no ultimate test of a solution.
PSMs were developed for situations that tend toward the wicked or "soft" side, when methods are needed that assist <a href="/facts/Argumentation/9oaSBJSo">argumentation</a> about, or that generate mutual understanding of multiple perspectives on, a complex situation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> Other problem solving methods are better suited to situations toward the tame or "hard" side where a reliable and optimal solution is needed to a problem that can be clearly and uncontroversially defined.

<h2 id="characteristics">Characteristics</h2>
Problem structuring methods constitute a family of approaches that have differing purposes and techniques, and many of them had been developed independently before people began to notice their family resemblance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> Several scholars have noted the common and divergent characteristics among PSMs.
Eden and Ackermann identified four characteristics that problem structuring methods have in common:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a>

<ol><li>The methods focus on creating "a model that is populated with data that is specific to the problem situation". These cause–effect models can be analyzed (albeit in different ways by different methods), and the models are intended to facilitate conversation and negotiation between the participants.</li>
<li>The methods seek to increase the overall productivity of group processes. Productivity includes creating better agreements that are more likely to be implemented, and realizing (to the extent possible in the given situation) ideals such as <a href="/facts/Communicative_rationality/vGLv6pBA">communicative rationality</a> and <a href="/facts/Procedural_justice/XwsxfUKu">procedural justice</a>.</li>
<li>The methods emphasize that the <a href="/facts/Facilitation_(business)/by72HuYd">facilitation</a> of effective group processes requires some attention to, and open conversation about, power and politics within and between organizations. Power and politics can become especially important when major change is being proposed.</li>
<li>The methods provide techniques and skills for facilitation of group processes, and they appreciate that such techniques and skills are essential for effective <a href="/facts/Sensemaking/zRXo87oc">sensemaking</a>, <a href="/facts/Systems_modeling/t3YrWCVC">systems modeling</a>, and <a href="/facts/Participative_decision-making/EB5oBQDV">participative decision-making</a>. People who use PSMs must pay attention to what group <a href="/facts/Facilitator/jotJvfw5">facilitators</a> call process skills (guiding interactions between people through nonlinear applications of the methods) and content skills (helping people build sufficiently comprehensive models of the given situation).</li></ol>
Rosenhead provided another list of common characteristics of PSMs, formulated in a more prescriptive style:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>

<ul><li>Seek solutions which <a href="/facts/Satisfice/Bzcsq4l8">satisfice</a> on separate dimensions rather than seeking an <a href="/facts/Optimal_decision/3qplyF1M">optimal decision</a> on a single dimension.</li>
<li>Integrate hard and soft (quantitative and qualitative) data with social judgments.</li>
<li>Produce models that are as <a href="/facts/Transparency_(behavior)/vbB9ombC">transparent</a> as possible to and that clarify conflicts of interpretation, rather than hiding conflicts behind neutral technical language.</li>
<li>Consider people to be agents actively involved in the <a href="/facts/Decision-making/NbJYprSw">decision-making</a> process, rather than as passive objects to be modeled or ignored.</li>
<li>Facilitate the problem structuring process from the bottom-up as much as possible, not only top-down from formal organizational leadership.</li>
<li>Aim to preserve options in the face of unavoidable uncertainty, rather than to base decisions on a prediction of the future.</li></ul>
An early literature review of problem structuring proposed grouping the texts reviewed into "four streams of thought" that describe some major differences between methods:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a>

<ul><li>the checklist stream, which is step-by-step technical problem solving (not problem structuring as it came to be defined in PSMs, so this stream does not apply to PSMs),</li>
<li>the definition stream, which is primarily modeling of relationships between variables, as described by Ackoff and others,</li>
<li>the science research stream which emphasizes doing field research and gathering quantitative data, and</li>
<li>the people stream, which "regards the definition of problems as a function of people's perceptions" as described by Checkland, Eden, and others.</li></ul>
<h3>Compared to large group methods</h3>
Mingers and Rosenhead have noted that there are similarities and differences between PSMs and large group methods such as Future Search, <a href="/facts/Open_Space_Technology/wnFhbmjT">Open Space Technology</a>, and others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> PSMs and large group methods both bring people together to talk about, and to share different perspectives on, a situation or state of affairs that some people want to change. However, PSMs always focus on creating a sufficiently rigorous <a href="/facts/Conceptual_model/hgysE2kP">conceptual model</a> or <a href="/facts/Cognitive_map/XCPtee5S">cognitive map</a> of the situation, whereas large group methods do not necessarily emphasize modeling, and PSMs are not necessarily used with large groups of people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>

<h3>Compared to participatory rural appraisal</h3>
There is significant overlap or shared characteristics between PSMs and some of the techniques used in <a href="/facts/Participatory_rural_appraisal/LKa0pI3W">participatory rural appraisal</a> (PRA). Mingers and Rosenhead pointed out that in situations where people have low literacy, the nonliterate (oral and visual) techniques developed in PRA would be a necessary complement to PSMs, and the approaches to modeling in PSMs could be (and have been) used by practitioners of PRA.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a>

<h2 id="applications">Applications</h2>
In 2004, Mingers and Rosenhead published a literature review of papers that had been published in <a href="/facts/Scholarly_journal/SBI7Ue0q">scholarly journals</a> and that reported practical applications of PSMs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> Their literature survey covered the period up to 1998, which was "relatively early in the development of interest in PSMs",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> and categorized 51 reported applications under the following application areas: general organizational applications; information systems; technology, resources, planning; health services; and general research. Examples of applications reported included: designing a parliamentary briefing system, modeling the <a href="/facts/San_Francisco_Zoo/3JS6NmH8">San Francisco Zoo</a>, developing a <a href="/facts/Business_strategy/b4kFnS66">business strategy</a> and <a href="/facts/Information_system/apcSzFLh">information system</a> strategy, planning livestock management in Nepal, regional planning in South Africa, modeling hospital outpatient services, and eliciting knowledge about pesticides.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a>

<h2 id="technology-and-software">Technology and software</h2>
PSMs are a general <a href="/facts/Methodology/dk5X9Hxx">methodology</a> and are not necessarily dependent on electronic <a href="/facts/Information_technology/glMzunwe">information technology</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> but PSMs do rely on some kind of <a href="/facts/Information_graphics/yGbFkPUp">shared display</a> of the models that participants are developing. The shared display could be <a href="/facts/Flip_chart/bWIJa5KV">flip charts</a>, a large <a href="/facts/Whiteboard/ovIrtALk">whiteboard</a>, <a href="/facts/Post-it_note/TuxUjwJC">Post-it notes</a> on the meeting room walls, and/or a <a href="/facts/Personal_computer/koaYfNce">personal computer</a> connected to a <a href="/facts/Video_projector/5fIVG2sq">video projector</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> After PSMs have been used in a group work session, it is normal for a record of the session's display to be shared with participants and with other relevant people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a>
Software programs for supporting problem structuring include Banxia Decision Explorer and Group Explorer,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> which implement <a href="/facts/Cognitive_map/XCPtee5S">cognitive mapping</a> for strategic options development and analysis (SODA), and <a href="/facts/Compendium_(software)/T11rctHW">Compendium</a>, which implements <a href="/facts/Issue-based_information_system/C8ozeSAM">IBIS</a> for <a href="/facts/Dialogue_mapping/C8ozeSAM">dialogue mapping</a> and related methods;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> a similar program is called Wisdom.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> Such software can serve a variety of functions, such as simple technical assistance to the group facilitator during a single event, or more long-term online group <a href="/facts/Decision_support_system/HPeJMlRM">decision support systems</a>.
Some practitioners prefer not to use computers during group work sessions because of the effect they have on <a href="/facts/Group_dynamics/Jo0C0Dfa">group dynamics</a>, but such use of computers is standard in some PSMs such as SODA<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> and dialogue mapping,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> in which computer display of models or maps is intended to guide conversation in the most efficient way.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a>
In some situations additional software that is not used only for PSMs may be incorporated into the problem structuring process; examples include <a href="/facts/Spreadsheet/0cvc1GeB">spreadsheet</a> modeling, <a href="/facts/Comparison_of_system_dynamics_software/m6aJuw1p">system dynamics software</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> or <a href="/facts/Geographic_information_system/PoP1kVoa">geographic information systems</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> Some practitioners, who have focused on building <a href="/facts/System_dynamics/EPI2wWsI">system dynamics</a> simulation models with groups of people, have called their work group model building (GMB) and have concluded "that GMB is another PSM".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> GMB has also been used in combination with SODA.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Causal_model/TC6UJglD">Causal model</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Boundary_critique/1qVmtc49">Boundary critique</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Decision_conferencing/RRpdrrd9">Decision conferencing</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Delphi_method/KtWtgEVn">Delphi method</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Group_concept_mapping/xNCx8mVT">Group concept mapping</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Inquiry/bUaHSqUh">Inquiry § Inquiry in the pragmatic paradigm</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Method_engineering/eWpbxH5e">Method engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Participatory_modeling/8DpRXyBR">Participatory modeling</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Policy/0DtXG95q">Policy § Policy cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Problem_finding/bQDeFIY8">Problem finding</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Problem_formulation/jmz287ww">Problem formulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Problem_shaping/In4Yossd">Problem shaping</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Research_question/xf0vK9aV">Research question</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Richards_Heuer/lEtNXRVP">Richards Heuer § Structured analytic techniques</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Stakeholder_analysis/nVDhILCI">Stakeholder analysis</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<ul><li>Ackermann, Fran; Eden, Colin (2011) [1998]. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ov6J36XZxAkC">Making strategy: mapping out strategic success</a> (2nd ed.). London; Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/facts/SAGE_Publications/myamBVEB">SAGE Publications</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781849201193. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/754163654">754163654</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Russell_L._Ackoff/1pFENyo7">Ackoff, Russell Lincoln</a> (1974). <a href="https://archive.org/details/redesigningfutur00russ">Redesigning the future: a systems approach to societal problems</a>. New York: <a href="/facts/John_Wiley_%2526_Sons/53g3LqJc">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0471002963. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/922908">922908</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Russell_L._Ackoff/1pFENyo7">Ackoff, Russell Lincoln</a> (February 1979). <a href="http://ackoffcenter.blogs.com/files/the-future-of-operational-research-is-past.pdf">"The future of operational research is past"</a> (PDF). <a href="/facts/Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society/Jbz6dEGe">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 30 (2): 93–104. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjors.1979.22">10.1057/jors.1979.22</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3009290">3009290</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154631075">154631075</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Andersen, David F.; Vennix, Jac A. M.; Richardson, George P.; Rouwette, Etiënne (April 2007). <a href="http://www.albany.edu/~gpr/JORS06.pdf">"Group model building: problem structuring, policy simulation and decision support"</a> (PDF). <a href="/facts/Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society/Jbz6dEGe">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 58 (5): 691–694. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.jors.2602339">10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602339</a>. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2066%2F46184">2066/46184</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4622747">4622747</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22695320">22695320</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Bunker, Barbara Benedict; Alban, Billie T. (2006). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_kWkem8Xjo8C">The handbook of large group methods: creating systemic change in organizations and communities</a>. San Francisco: <a href="/facts/Jossey-Bass/53g3LqJc">Jossey-Bass</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0787981433. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/67346067">67346067</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Peter_Checkland/CIwUbXU4">Checkland, Peter</a> (1975). "The development of systems thinking by systems practice: a methodology from an action research program". In <a href="/facts/Robert_Trappl/EexJS6B0">Trappl, Robert</a>; Hanika, Francis de Paula (eds.). Progress in cybernetics and systems research. Vol. 2. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Pub. Corp. pp. 278–283. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0470884768. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/768420617">768420617</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Peter_Checkland/CIwUbXU4">Checkland, Peter</a> (1981). <a href="https://archive.org/details/systemsthinkings00chec">Systems thinking, systems practice</a>. Chichester, UK; New York: <a href="/facts/John_Wiley_%2526_Sons/53g3LqJc">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0471279112. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7197202">7197202</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Peter_Checkland/CIwUbXU4">Checkland, Peter</a>; Poulter, John (2006). Learning for action: a short definitive account of soft systems methodology and its use for practitioner, teachers, and students. Hoboken, NJ: <a href="/facts/John_Wiley_%2526_Sons/53g3LqJc">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780470025543. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/67374920">67374920</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Chatjoulis, Athena; Humphreys, Patrick (January 2007). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220260549">"A problem solving process model for personal decision support (PSPM-DS)"</a>. Journal of Decision Systems. 16 (2): 213–239. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.3166%2Fjds.16.213-239">10.3166/jds.16.213-239</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62660675">62660675</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Conklin, E. Jeffrey (2006). Dialogue mapping: building shared understanding of wicked problems. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: <a href="/facts/John_Wiley_%2526_Sons/53g3LqJc">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0470017685. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60491946">60491946</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Culmsee, Paul; Awati, Kailash (2013) [2011]. "Problem structuring methods". The heretic's guide to best practices: the reality of managing complex problems in organisations. Bloomington: <a href="/facts/IUniverse/mzj7cz5A">iUniverse</a>. pp. 212–245. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781462058549. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/767703320">767703320</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Culmsee, Paul; Awati, Kailash (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loa4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA261">"The Map and the Territory: A Practitioner Perspective on Knowledge Cartography"</a>. In Okada, Alexandra; Buckingham Shum, Simon J.; Sherborne, Tony (eds.). Knowledge cartography: software tools and mapping techniques. Advanced information and knowledge processing (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/facts/Springer_Verlag/nAesf6nT">Springer Verlag</a>. pp. 261–292. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4471-6470-8_12">10.1007/978-1-4471-6470-8_12</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781447164692. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/890438015">890438015</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Dunn, William N. (June 1988). "Methods of the second type: coping with the wilderness of conventional policy analysis". Review of Policy Research. 7 (4): 720–737. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1541-1338.1988.tb00891.x">10.1111/j.1541-1338.1988.tb00891.x</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Eden, Colin (April 1982). "Problem construction and the influence of O.R.". Interfaces. 12 (2): 50–60. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1287%2Finte.12.2.50">10.1287/inte.12.2.50</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25060235">25060235</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Eden, Colin; Ackermann, Fran (June 2006). "Where next for problem structuring methods". <a href="/facts/Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society/Jbz6dEGe">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 57 (7): 766–768. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.jors.2602090">10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602090</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4102262">4102262</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20964755">20964755</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Eden, Colin; Sims, David (January 1979). "On the nature of problems in consulting practice". Omega. 7 (2): 119–127. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0305-0483%2879%2990099-9">10.1016/0305-0483(79)90099-9</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Ferretti, Valentina (September 2016). <a href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/65737/1/Ferretti_From%20stakeholders%20analysis%20to%20cognitive%20mapping.pdf">"From stakeholders analysis to cognitive mapping and Multi-Attribute Value Theory: an integrated approach for policy support"</a> (PDF). <a href="/facts/European_Journal_of_Operational_Research/ayoYkapv">European Journal of Operational Research</a>. 253 (2): 524–541. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2016.02.054">10.1016/j.ejor.2016.02.054</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Robert_L._Flood/YDYbwjGr">Flood, Robert L.</a>; <a href="/facts/Michael_C._Jackson/w6dzwrFY">Jackson, Michael C.</a> (1991). Creative problem solving: total systems intervention. Chichester, UK; New York: <a href="/facts/John_Wiley_%2526_Sons/53g3LqJc">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0471930525. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/23254656">23254656</a>.</li></ul>
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<ul><li>Herrera, Hugo J.; McCardle-Keurentjes, Marleen H. F.; Videira, Nuno (November 2016). "Evaluating facilitated modelling processes and outcomes: an experiment comparing a single and a multimethod approach in group model building". Group Decision and Negotiation. 25 (6): 1277–1318. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10726-016-9480-z">10.1007/s10726-016-9480-z</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156914319">156914319</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Hovmand, Peter S. (2014). Community based system dynamics. New York: <a href="/facts/Springer_Verlag/nAesf6nT">Springer Verlag</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-8763-0">10.1007/978-1-4614-8763-0</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1461487623. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/857646084">857646084</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Michael_C._Jackson/w6dzwrFY">Jackson, Michael C.</a>; Keys, Paul (June 1984). "Towards a system of systems methodologies". <a href="/facts/Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society/Jbz6dEGe">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 35 (6): 473–486. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjors.1984.101">10.1057/jors.1984.101</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2581795">2581795</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62772311">62772311</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Landis, John (1988). <a href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1sd8r3dk">"The case against statistics-as-methods: confessions of a born-again planmaker"</a>. Berkeley Planning Journal. 3 (2): 112–122.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Mackenzie, Adrian; Pidd, Michael; Rooksby, John; Sommerville, Ian; Warren, Ian; Westcombe, Mark (April 2006). "'Wisdom', decision support and paradigms of decision making". <a href="/facts/European_Journal_of_Operational_Research/ayoYkapv">European Journal of Operational Research</a>. 170 (1): 156–171. <a href="/facts/CiteSeerX_(identifier)/SceDmd3c">CiteSeerX</a> <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.132.9613">10.1.1.132.9613</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2004.07.041">10.1016/j.ejor.2004.07.041</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Mingers, John; Rosenhead, Jonathan, eds. (2001). Rational analysis for a problematic world revisited: problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainty and conflict (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK; New York: <a href="/facts/John_Wiley_%2526_Sons/53g3LqJc">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0471495239. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/46601256">46601256</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Mingers, John; Rosenhead, Jonathan (February 2004). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4871210">"Problem structuring methods in action"</a>. <a href="/facts/European_Journal_of_Operational_Research/ayoYkapv">European Journal of Operational Research</a>. 152 (3): 530–554. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0377-2217%2803%2900056-0">10.1016/S0377-2217(03)00056-0</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Norris, Michael (September 1985). "Review: Operational research and the social sciences". <a href="/facts/Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society/Jbz6dEGe">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 36 (9): 870–872. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2582177">10.2307/2582177</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2582177">2582177</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Pfeiffer, Constanze; Glaser, Stephanie; Vencatesan, Jayshree; Schliermann-Kraus, Elke; Drescher, Axel; Glaser, Rüdiger (November 2008). <a href="https://doi.org/10.4081%2Fgh.2008.236">"Facilitating participatory multilevel decision-making by using interactive mental maps"</a>. Geospatial Health. 3 (1): 103–112. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.4081%2Fgh.2008.236">10.4081/gh.2008.236</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19021113">19021113</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Reynolds, Martin; Holwell, Sue, eds. (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mRjA1alwF3IC">Systems approaches to managing change: a practical guide</a>. London; New York: <a href="/facts/Springer_Verlag/nAesf6nT">Springer Verlag</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-84882-809-4">10.1007/978-1-84882-809-4</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781848828087. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/428028266">428028266</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Horst_Rittel/dbvYNtbq">Rittel, Horst W. J.</a>; <a href="/facts/Melvin_M._Webber/625XemdG">Webber, Melvin M.</a> (June 1973). <a href="http://hci.stanford.edu/dschool/resources/readings/Rittel+Webber+Dilemmas+General_Theory_of_Planning.pdf">"Dilemmas in a general theory of planning"</a> (PDF). <a href="/facts/Policy_Sciences/aoqtWbGG">Policy Sciences</a>. 4 (2): 155–169. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01405730">10.1007/BF01405730</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4531523">4531523</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18634229">18634229</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Rodriguez-Ulloa, Ricardo; Paucar-Caceres, Alberto (June 2005). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27400256">"Soft system dynamics methodology (SSDM): combining soft systems methodology (SSM) and system dynamics (SD)"</a>. Systemic Practice and Action Research. 18 (3): 303–334. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11213-005-4816-7">10.1007/s11213-005-4816-7</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54555503">54555503</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Jonathan_Rosenhead/oTdsV8jR">Rosenhead, Jonathan</a> (1989). Rational analysis for a problematic world: problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainty, and conflict. Chichester, UK; New York: <a href="/facts/John_Wiley_%2526_Sons/53g3LqJc">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0471922858. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/19847533">19847533</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Rosenhead, Jonathan (November 1996). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247823670">"What's the problem?: an introduction to problem structuring methods"</a>. Interfaces. 26 (6): 117–131. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1287%2Finte.26.6.117">10.1287/inte.26.6.117</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25062196">25062196</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: <a href="/facts/Springer_Verlag/nAesf6nT">Springer Verlag</a>. pp. 1162–1172. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806">10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781441911377. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751832290">751832290</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Woolley, Robert N.; Pidd, Michael (March 1981). "Problem structuring—a literature review". <a href="/facts/Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society/Jbz6dEGe">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 32 (3): 197–206. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjors.1981.42">10.1057/jors.1981.42</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2581061">2581061</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:62223595">62223595</a>.</li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>

<ul><li>Yearworth, Mike (2024). Problem structuring: methodology in practice. New York: <a href="/facts/John_Wiley_%2526_Sons/53g3LqJc">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781119744856">10.1002/9781119744856</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781119744825. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1428781803">1428781803</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Veldhuis, Guido Arjan; Scheepstal, Peter van; Rouwette, Etiënne; Logtens, Tom (June 2015). "Collaborative problem structuring using MARVEL". EURO Journal on Decision Processes. 3 (3–4): 249–273. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs40070-015-0045-1">10.1007/s40070-015-0045-1</a>. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/2066%2F162275">2066/162275</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:108617231">108617231</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Bryson, John M.; Eden, Colin; Ackermann, Fran (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N1vOAwAAQBAJ">Visual strategy: a workbook for strategy mapping for public and nonprofit organizations</a>. San Francisco: <a href="/facts/Jossey-Bass/53g3LqJc">Jossey-Bass</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781118605929. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883462253">883462253</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Cronin, Karen; <a href="/facts/Gerald_Midgley/Ez0aIcx5">Midgley, Gerald</a>; Jackson, Laurie Skuba (February 2014). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277450288">"Issues mapping: a problem structuring method for addressing science and technology conflicts"</a>. <a href="/facts/European_Journal_of_Operational_Research/ayoYkapv">European Journal of Operational Research</a>. 233 (1): 145–158. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2013.08.012">10.1016/j.ejor.2013.08.012</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Groetker, Ralf (2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loa4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA309">"Visualized problem structuring for stakeholder consultations: enabling informed decision-making with argument maps and the argument browser"</a>. In Okada, Alexandra; Buckingham Shum, Simon J.; Sherborne, Tony (eds.). Knowledge cartography: software tools and mapping techniques. Advanced information and knowledge processing (2nd ed.). New York: <a href="/facts/Springer_Verlag/nAesf6nT">Springer Verlag</a>. pp. 309–332. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4471-6470-8_14">10.1007/978-1-4471-6470-8_14</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781447164692. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/890438015">890438015</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Hogan, Michael J.; Harney, Owen M.; Broome, Benjamin J. (2014). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271326448">"Integrating Argument Mapping with Systems Thinking Tools: Advancing Applied Systems Science"</a>. In Okada, Alexandra; Buckingham Shum, Simon J.; Sherborne, Tony (eds.). Knowledge cartography: software tools and mapping techniques. Advanced information and knowledge processing (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 401–421. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4471-6470-8_18">10.1007/978-1-4471-6470-8_18</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781447164692. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/890438015">890438015</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Jordan, Thomas (2014). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267642714">"Deliberative methods for complex issues: a typology of functions that may need scaffolding"</a>. Group Facilitation: A Research and Applications Journal (13): 50–71.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Yearworth, Mike; White, Leroy (September 2014). <a href="https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/bitstream/10871/26098/1/EJOR-S-13-03166-RevisedManuscript-300114.pdf">"The non-codified use of problem structuring methods and the need for a generic constitutive definition"</a> (PDF). <a href="/facts/European_Journal_of_Operational_Research/ayoYkapv">European Journal of Operational Research</a>. 237 (3): 932–945. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2014.02.015">10.1016/j.ejor.2014.02.015</a>. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/10871%2F26098">10871/26098</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30180206">30180206</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Ferreira, J. Soeiro (June 2013). <a href="http://repositorio.inesctec.pt/handle/123456789/5876">"Multimethodology in metaheuristics"</a>. <a href="/facts/Journal_of_the_Operational_Research_Society/Jbz6dEGe">Journal of the Operational Research Society</a>. 64 (6): 873–883. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjors.2012.88">10.1057/jors.2012.88</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1170426">1170426</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Metcalfe, Mike; Sastrowardoyo, Saras (November 2013). "Complex project conceptualisation and argument mapping". International Journal of Project Management. 31 (8): 1129–1138. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijproman.2013.01.004">10.1016/j.ijproman.2013.01.004</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Gerald_Midgley/Ez0aIcx5">Midgley, Gerald</a>; Cavana, Robert Y.; Brocklesby, John; Foote, Jeff L.; Wood, David R. R.; Ahuriri-Driscoll, Annabel (August 2013). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2013.01.047">"Towards a new framework for evaluating systemic problem structuring methods"</a>. <a href="/facts/European_Journal_of_Operational_Research/ayoYkapv">European Journal of Operational Research</a>. 229 (1): 143–154. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ejor.2013.01.047">10.1016/j.ejor.2013.01.047</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Golnam, Arash; Tapandjieva, Gorica; Viana, Sérgio; Wegmann, Alain (2011). <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266877552">"Problem structuring methods in system dynamics modeling: a cognitive fit perspective"</a>. In Lyneis, James M.; Richardson, George P. (eds.). 29th International Conference of the System Dynamics Society 2011: Washington, DC, USA, 24–28 July 2011: proceedings. Albany: <a href="/facts/System_Dynamics_Society/lXe1lya3">System Dynamics Society</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781618392299. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/772917674">772917674</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Roam, Dan (2011). Blah blah blah: what to do when words don't work. New York: <a href="/facts/Penguin_Group/smLs3pup">Portfolio/Penguin</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781591844594.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Belton, Valerie; Stewart, Theodor (2010). "Problem Structuring and Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis". In Ehrgott, Matthias; Figueira, José; Greco, Salvatore (eds.). Trends in Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis. International series in operations research & management science. Vol. 142. New York: <a href="/facts/Springer_Verlag/nAesf6nT">Springer Verlag</a>. pp. 209–239. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-5904-1_8">10.1007/978-1-4419-5904-1_8</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781441959034.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Kilgour, D. Marc; Eden, Colin, eds. (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tGsQl-wxbKAC">Handbook of group decision and negotiation</a>. Advances in group decision and negotiation. Vol. 4. New York: <a href="/facts/Springer_Verlag/nAesf6nT">Springer Verlag</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-9097-3">10.1007/978-90-481-9097-3</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9789048190966. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109009575">109009575</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li>Cuppen, E. H. W. J. (Eefje) (2009). Putting perspectives into participation: constructive conflict methodology for problem structuring in stakeholder dialogues (Ph.D. thesis). Amsterdam. <a href="/facts/Hdl_(identifier)/rdebSxmC">hdl</a>:<a href="https://hdl.handle.net/1871%2F15611">1871/15611</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9789088911354. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/890620243">890620243</a>.</li></ul>
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<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Rosenhead 2013, p. 1162 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Rosenhead 1996, p. 117 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (November 1996). "What's the problem?: an introduction to problem structuring methods". Interfaces. 26 (6): 117–131. doi:10.1287/inte.26.6.117. JSTOR 25062196. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247823670" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247823670</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Rosenhead 2013, p. 1162 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Checkland & Poulter 2006 - Checkland, Peter; Poulter, John (2006). Learning for action: a short definitive account of soft systems methodology and its use for practitioner, teachers, and students. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470025543. OCLC 67374920. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/67374920" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/67374920</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Friend & Hickling 2005 - Friend, John K.; Hickling, Allen (2005) [1987]. Planning under pressure: the strategic choice approach (3rd ed.). Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 9780750663731. OCLC 56590929. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DK-Yet2ZomUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=DK-Yet2ZomUC</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Reynolds & Holwell 2010, pp. 135–190 - Reynolds, Martin; Holwell, Sue, eds. (2010). Systems approaches to managing change: a practical guide. London; New York: Springer Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-1-84882-809-4. ISBN 9781848828087. OCLC 428028266. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mRjA1alwF3IC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=mRjA1alwF3IC</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Rosenhead 1996, p. 118 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (November 1996). "What's the problem?: an introduction to problem structuring methods". Interfaces. 26 (6): 117–131. doi:10.1287/inte.26.6.117. JSTOR 25062196. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247823670" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247823670</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">For example: Chatjoulis & Humphreys 2007 - Chatjoulis, Athena; Humphreys, Patrick (January 2007). "A problem solving process model for personal decision support (PSPM-DS)". Journal of Decision Systems. 16 (2): 213–239. doi:10.3166/jds.16.213-239. S2CID 62660675. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220260549" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220260549</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">For examples, see: Norris 1985, p. 871; Dunn 1988, p. 720; Landis 1988, pp. 117–119. William N. Dunn wrote in 1988: "In the absence of appropriate problem-structuring methods, how can we expect to formulate problems that encompass the proper elements, for example, the proper policy objectives, alternatives, and expected outcomes? Given a particular problem formulation, how do we know whether all important elements have been included in the set? In short, how do we know when we have formulated an approximate solution to the right problem, as distinguished from an exact solution to the wrong problem?" (Dunn 1988, p. 720) - Norris, Michael (September 1985). "Review: Operational research and the social sciences". Journal of the Operational Research Society. 36 (9): 870–872. doi:10.2307/2582177. JSTOR 2582177. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2582177" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2582177</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Rosenhead 1989 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (1989). Rational analysis for a problematic world: problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainty, and conflict. Chichester, UK; New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0471922858. OCLC 19847533. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/19847533" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/19847533</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Rosenhead 1996, p. 117 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (November 1996). "What's the problem?: an introduction to problem structuring methods". Interfaces. 26 (6): 117–131. doi:10.1287/inte.26.6.117. JSTOR 25062196. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247823670" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247823670</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Rosenhead 2013, p. 1164 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Rittel & Webber 1973 - Rittel, Horst W. J.; Webber, Melvin M. (June 1973). "Dilemmas in a general theory of planning" (PDF). Policy Sciences. 4 (2): 155–169. doi:10.1007/BF01405730. JSTOR 4531523. S2CID 18634229. <a href="http://hci.stanford.edu/dschool/resources/readings/Rittel+Webber+Dilemmas+General_Theory_of_Planning.pdf" target="_blank">http://hci.stanford.edu/dschool/resources/readings/Rittel+Webber+Dilemmas+General_Theory_of_Planning.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">For example: Ackoff 1974, Ackoff 1979 - Ackoff, Russell Lincoln (1974). Redesigning the future: a systems approach to societal problems. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0471002963. OCLC 922908. <a href="https://archive.org/details/redesigningfutur00russ" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/redesigningfutur00russ</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Checkland 1975, Checkland 1981 - Checkland, Peter (1975). "The development of systems thinking by systems practice: a methodology from an action research program". In Trappl, Robert; Hanika, Francis de Paula (eds.). Progress in cybernetics and systems research. Vol. 2. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Pub. Corp. pp. 278–283. ISBN 978-0470884768. OCLC 768420617. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/768420617" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/768420617</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">For example: Eden & Sims 1979, Eden 1982, Eden & Ackermann 2006 - Eden, Colin; Sims, David (January 1979). "On the nature of problems in consulting practice". Omega. 7 (2): 119–127. doi:10.1016/0305-0483(79)90099-9. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0305-0483%2879%2990099-9" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0305-0483%2879%2990099-9</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">For example: Jackson & Keys 1984, Flood & Jackson 1991 - Jackson, Michael C.; Keys, Paul (June 1984). "Towards a system of systems methodologies". Journal of the Operational Research Society. 35 (6): 473–486. doi:10.1057/jors.1984.101. JSTOR 2581795. S2CID 62772311. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjors.1984.101" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjors.1984.101</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">For example: Rosenhead 1989, Mingers & Rosenhead 2001 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (1989). Rational analysis for a problematic world: problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainty, and conflict. Chichester, UK; New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0471922858. OCLC 19847533. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/19847533" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/19847533</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Rosenhead 2013, pp. 1163–1164 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Rosenhead 2013, pp. 1163–1164 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">This table is adapted from: Culmsee & Awati 2013, p. 108 - Culmsee, Paul; Awati, Kailash (2013) [2011]. "Problem structuring methods". The heretic's guide to best practices: the reality of managing complex problems in organisations. Bloomington: iUniverse. pp. 212–245. ISBN 9781462058549. OCLC 767703320. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/767703320" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/767703320</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">This table is adapted from: Culmsee & Awati 2013, p. 108 - Culmsee, Paul; Awati, Kailash (2013) [2011]. "Problem structuring methods". The heretic's guide to best practices: the reality of managing complex problems in organisations. Bloomington: iUniverse. pp. 212–245. ISBN 9781462058549. OCLC 767703320. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/767703320" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/767703320</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Rosenhead 2013, pp. 1163–1164 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Rosenhead 2013, pp. 1163–1164 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Eden & Ackermann 2006 - Eden, Colin; Ackermann, Fran (June 2006). "Where next for problem structuring methods". Journal of the Operational Research Society. 57 (7): 766–768. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602090. JSTOR 4102262. S2CID 20964755. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.jors.2602090" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.jors.2602090</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Rosenhead 2013, pp. 1164–1165 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Woolley & Pidd 1981, pp. 203–204 - Woolley, Robert N.; Pidd, Michael (March 1981). "Problem structuring—a literature review". Journal of the Operational Research Society. 32 (3): 197–206. doi:10.1057/jors.1981.42. JSTOR 2581061. S2CID 62223595. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjors.1981.42" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjors.1981.42</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Mingers & Rosenhead 2004, p. 548; examples of large group methods can be found in Bunker & Alban 2006 - Mingers, John; Rosenhead, Jonathan (February 2004). "Problem structuring methods in action". European Journal of Operational Research. 152 (3): 530–554. doi:10.1016/S0377-2217(03)00056-0. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4871210" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4871210</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Mingers & Rosenhead 2004, p. 548; examples of large group methods can be found in Bunker & Alban 2006 - Mingers, John; Rosenhead, Jonathan (February 2004). "Problem structuring methods in action". European Journal of Operational Research. 152 (3): 530–554. doi:10.1016/S0377-2217(03)00056-0. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4871210" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4871210</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Mingers & Rosenhead 2004, pp. 548–549 - Mingers, John; Rosenhead, Jonathan (February 2004). "Problem structuring methods in action". European Journal of Operational Research. 152 (3): 530–554. doi:10.1016/S0377-2217(03)00056-0. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4871210" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4871210</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Mingers & Rosenhead 2004, pp. 541–542 - Mingers, John; Rosenhead, Jonathan (February 2004). "Problem structuring methods in action". European Journal of Operational Research. 152 (3): 530–554. doi:10.1016/S0377-2217(03)00056-0. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4871210" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4871210</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Rosenhead 2013, p. 1167 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Mingers & Rosenhead 2004, pp. 541–542 - Mingers, John; Rosenhead, Jonathan (February 2004). "Problem structuring methods in action". European Journal of Operational Research. 152 (3): 530–554. doi:10.1016/S0377-2217(03)00056-0. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4871210" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4871210</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Rosenhead 2013, p. 1170 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Rosenhead 2013, p. 1170 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Rosenhead 2013, p. 1170 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Ackermann & Eden 2011; Rosenhead 2013, p. 1169 - Ackermann, Fran; Eden, Colin (2011) [1998]. Making strategy: mapping out strategic success (2nd ed.). London; Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781849201193. OCLC 754163654. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ov6J36XZxAkC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=ov6J36XZxAkC</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Conklin 2006; Culmsee & Awati 2013; Culmsee & Awati 2014 - Conklin, E. Jeffrey (2006). Dialogue mapping: building shared understanding of wicked problems. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470017685. OCLC 60491946. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60491946" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60491946</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Mackenzie et al. 2006 - Mackenzie, Adrian; Pidd, Michael; Rooksby, John; Sommerville, Ian; Warren, Ian; Westcombe, Mark (April 2006). "'Wisdom', decision support and paradigms of decision making". European Journal of Operational Research. 170 (1): 156–171. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.132.9613. doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2004.07.041. <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.132.9613" target="_blank">https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.132.9613</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Ackermann & Eden 2011; Rosenhead 2013, p. 1169 - Ackermann, Fran; Eden, Colin (2011) [1998]. Making strategy: mapping out strategic success (2nd ed.). London; Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781849201193. OCLC 754163654. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ov6J36XZxAkC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=ov6J36XZxAkC</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Conklin 2006; Culmsee & Awati 2013; Culmsee & Awati 2014 - Conklin, E. Jeffrey (2006). Dialogue mapping: building shared understanding of wicked problems. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470017685. OCLC 60491946. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60491946" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60491946</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Rosenhead 2013, p. 1170 - Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem Structuring Methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science (3rd ed.). New York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806. ISBN 9781441911377. OCLC 751832290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-1153-7_806</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">For example: Rodriguez-Ulloa & Paucar-Caceres 2005; Hovmand 2014, p. 83 - Rodriguez-Ulloa, Ricardo; Paucar-Caceres, Alberto (June 2005). "Soft system dynamics methodology (SSDM): combining soft systems methodology (SSM) and system dynamics (SD)". Systemic Practice and Action Research. 18 (3): 303–334. doi:10.1007/s11213-005-4816-7. S2CID 54555503. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27400256" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27400256</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">For example: Pfeiffer et al. 2008; Ferretti 2016 - Pfeiffer, Constanze; Glaser, Stephanie; Vencatesan, Jayshree; Schliermann-Kraus, Elke; Drescher, Axel; Glaser, Rüdiger (November 2008). "Facilitating participatory multilevel decision-making by using interactive mental maps". Geospatial Health. 3 (1): 103–112. doi:10.4081/gh.2008.236. PMID 19021113. <a href="https://doi.org/10.4081%2Fgh.2008.236" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.4081%2Fgh.2008.236</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Andersen et al. 2007, p. 691 - Andersen, David F.; Vennix, Jac A. M.; Richardson, George P.; Rouwette, Etiënne (April 2007). "Group model building: problem structuring, policy simulation and decision support" (PDF). Journal of the Operational Research Society. 58 (5): 691–694. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jors.2602339. hdl:2066/46184. JSTOR 4622747. S2CID 22695320. <a href="http://www.albany.edu/~gpr/JORS06.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.albany.edu/~gpr/JORS06.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Herrera et al. 2016 - Herrera, Hugo J.; McCardle-Keurentjes, Marleen H. F.; Videira, Nuno (November 2016). "Evaluating facilitated modelling processes and outcomes: an experiment comparing a single and a multimethod approach in group model building". Group Decision and Negotiation. 25 (6): 1277–1318. doi:10.1007/s10726-016-9480-z. S2CID 156914319. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10726-016-9480-z" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10726-016-9480-z</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Problem structuring methods open-in-new

Problem structuring methods