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Prebiotic (nutrition)
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<h2 id="definition">Definition</h2> <p>The definition of prebiotics and the food ingredients that can fall under this classification, has evolved since its first definition in 1995.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> In its earliest definition, the term prebiotics was used to refer to non-digestible food ingredients that were beneficial to the host through their selective stimulation of specific bacteria within the <a href="/facts/Large_intestine/vQtlNBv9">colon</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> Further research has suggested that selective stimulation has not been scientifically demonstrated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> As a result of research suggesting that prebiotics could impact microorganisms outside of the colon, in 2016 the <a href="/facts/International_Scientific_Association_for_Probiotics_and_Prebiotics/0tAd3PRn">International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics</a> (ISAPP) produced the following definition of prebiotics: a <a href="/facts/Substrate_(biology)/EBDd458H">substrate</a> that is selectively used by a host microorganism to produce a health benefit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> In 2021, The Global Prebiotic Association (GPA) defined a prebiotic as a product or ingredient that is utilized in the microbiota producing a health or performance benefit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>Compounds that can be classified as prebiotics must also meet the following criteria:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>non-digestible and resistant to breakdown by stomach acid and enzymes in the human <a href="/facts/Gastrointestinal_tract/nK2zwqBS">gastrointestinal tract</a></li> <li>fermented by microorganisms on or in the body</li> <li>stimulating growth and activity of beneficial bacteria</li></ul> <p>Thus, consumption of prebiotics may facilitate the health of the host.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> Based on the previous classifications, plant-derived carbohydrate compounds called <a href="/facts/Oligosaccharide/5to180o3">oligosaccharides</a> as well as resistant starch are the main source of prebiotics that have been identified.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Specifically, <a href="/facts/Fructan/BeIM3gok">fructans</a> and <a href="/facts/Galactan/PT8fyUD1">galactans</a> are two oligosaccharide sources which have been found to stimulate the activity and growth of beneficial bacterial colonies in the gut.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Fructans are a category of carbohydrate consisting of <a href="/facts/Fructooligosaccharide/ub26gvgq">fructooligosaccharides</a> (FOS) and <a href="/facts/Inulin/087d6jp2">inulins</a>, while galactans consist of <a href="/facts/Galactooligosaccharide/luYxxf10">galactooligosaccharides</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Resistant starch has been shown to shift the intestinal bacteria, as well as improve biomarkers for numerous health conditions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> Other dietary fibers also fit the definition of prebiotics, such as <a href="/facts/Pectin/nQF6T0Q7">pectin</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Beta-glucan/alg4Jnt5">beta-glucans</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Xylooligosaccharide/MeqX6Yjv">xylooligosaccharides</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/European_Food_Safety_Authority/wooppnvX">European Food Safety Authority</a> (EFSA), the regulatory agency for product labeling, differentiates between "prebiotic" and "dietary fiber", stating that "a <a href="/facts/Causality/Swh496X7">cause and effect relationship</a> has not been established between the consumption of the food constituents which are the subject of the health claims and a beneficial physiological effect related to increasing numbers of gastrointestinal microbiota".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> Consequently, under EFSA rules individual ingredients cannot be labeled as prebiotics, but only as dietary fiber and with no implication of health benefits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="function">Function</h2> <p>When the prebiotic concept was first introduced in 1995, the primary focus was on the effects that prebiotics confer on <i><a href="/facts/Bifidobacteria/ov3Sghxb">Bifidobacteria</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Lactobacillus/pwoacAbe">Lactobacillus</a>.</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> With improved mechanistic techniques in recent years, the current prebiotic targets have expanded to a wider range of microbes, including <i>Roseburia</i> spp., <i><a href="/facts/Eubacterium/I9QLVuj1">Eubacterium</a></i> spp., <i><a href="/facts/Akkermansia/spKUQXHC">Akkermansia</a></i> spp., <i>Christensenella</i> spp., <i><a href="/facts/Propionibacterium/Cmwwkc7I">Propionibacterium</a></i> spp. and <i><a href="/facts/Faecalibacterium/pyweMtzx">Faecalibacterium</a></i> spp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> These bacteria have been highlighted as key <a href="/facts/Probiotic/gQNAN6ly">probiotics</a> and beneficial gut bacteria as they may have several beneficial effects on the host in terms of improving digestion (including but not limited to enhancing mineral absorption)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> and the effectiveness and intrinsic strength of the immune system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> Both <i>Bifidobacteria</i> and <i>Lactobacillus</i> have been shown to have differing prebiotic specificity and to selectively ferment prebiotic fiber based on the enzymes characteristic of the bacterial population.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> Thus, <i>Lactobacilli</i> prefer inulin and fructooligosaccharides, while <i>Bifidobacteria</i> display specificity for inulin, fructooligosaccharides, xylooligosaccharides and galactooligosaccharides.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> Studies have also shown that prebiotics, besides helping growth of beneficial gut bacteria, can also inhibit detrimental and potentially pathogenic microbes in the gut,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> such as <a href="/facts/Clostridia/g3mSz5XP">clostridia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p> <h3>Mechanism of action</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Fermentation/rxaDr28b">Fermentation</a> is the main <a href="/facts/Mechanism_of_action/Sjk8vfV4">mechanism of action</a> by which prebiotics are used by beneficial bacteria in the colon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> Both <i>Bifidobacteria</i> and <i>Lactobacillus</i> are bacterial populations which use <a href="/facts/Saccharide/Geuuzxsf">saccharolytic</a> metabolism to break down substrates.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> The bifidobacterial <a href="/facts/Genome/31Sm08JT">genome</a> contains many <a href="/facts/Gene/e1swwPY6">genes</a> that encode for carbohydrate-modifying enzymes as well as genes that encode for carbohydrate uptake proteins. The presence of these genes indicates that <i>Bifidobacteria</i> contain specific metabolic pathways specialized for the fermentation and metabolism of plant-derived oligosaccharides, or prebiotics. These pathways in <i>Bifidobacteria</i> ultimately produce <a href="/facts/Short-chain_fatty_acid/bgj2XGRf">short chain fatty acids</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> which have diverse <a href="/facts/Physiology/fh25y2pQ">physiological</a> roles in body functions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="sources">Sources</h2> <p>Prebiotic sources must be proven to confer a benefit to the host in order to be classified as a prebiotic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> Fermentable <a href="/facts/Carbohydrate/Geuuzxsf">carbohydrates</a> derived from <a href="/facts/Fructan/BeIM3gok">fructans</a> and <a href="/facts/Xylan/pNGGxQHb">xylans</a> are one well documented example of prebiotics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> Resistant starch from starchy foods are also well documented prebiotics and have historically been the highest source of prebiotics in the diet, as 4-10% of starch in mixed diets has been shown to reach the large intestine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> One study reported that individuals consuming a traditional diet in Africa consumed 38 grams of resistant starch/day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> </p> <h3>Endogenous</h3> <p>An endogenous source of prebiotics in humans is human <a href="/facts/Breast_milk/wVfKCjyw">breast milk</a>, which contains <a href="/facts/Oligosaccharide/5to180o3">oligosaccharides</a> structurally similar to <a href="/facts/Galactooligosaccharide/luYxxf10">galactooligosaccharides</a>, referred to as human milk oligosaccharides.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> Human milk oligosaccharides were found to increase the <i><a href="/facts/Bifidobacterium/ov3Sghxb">Bifidobacteria</a></i> bacterial population in breastfed infants, and to strengthen the infant immune system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> Furthermore, human milk oligosaccharides help establish a healthy intestinal microbiota composition in newborns.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> </p> <h3>Exogenous</h3> <p>Indigestible carbohydrate compounds classified as prebiotics are a type of <a href="/facts/Fermentation/rxaDr28b">fermentable</a> fiber, and thus can be classified as <a href="/facts/Dietary_fiber/Q9DXanDv">dietary fiber</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> However, not all dietary fiber can be classified as a prebiotic source.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> In addition to the food sources highlighted in the following table, raw oats,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Barley/GH7X2qtG">unrefined barley</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Yac%25C3%25B3n/LdhjKWv4">yacón</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> and whole grain <a href="/facts/Breakfast_cereal/UoB6gfz3">breakfast cereals</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> are also classified as prebiotic fiber sources. The predominant type of prebiotic fiber may vary according to the food. For instance, oats and barley have high amounts of <a href="/facts/Beta-glucans/alg4Jnt5">beta-glucans</a>, fruit and berries contain <a href="/facts/Pectin/nQF6T0Q7">pectins</a>, seeds contain <a href="/facts/Gum_(botany)/ooJBwshl">gums</a>, onions and <a href="/facts/Jerusalem_artichoke/gD1ceLcd">Jerusalem artichokes</a> are rich in <a href="/facts/Inulin/087d6jp2">inulin</a> and <a href="/facts/Oligofructose/ub26gvgq">oligofructose</a>, and bananas and legumes contain <a href="/facts/Resistant_starch/lmeyF7Rd">resistant starch</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> </p> Ten foods that are high in prebiotics<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th scope="col">Food</th><th scope="col">Prebiotic fiber by weight</th></tr><tr><td>Raw, dry <a href="/facts/Chicory_root/yNPqofmI">chicory root</a></td><td>64.6%</td></tr><tr><td>Raw, dry <a href="/facts/Jerusalem_artichoke/gD1ceLcd">Jerusalem artichoke</a></td><td>31.5%</td></tr><tr><td>Raw, dry <a href="/facts/Dandelion_greens/VlPP0mTn">dandelion greens</a></td><td>24.3%</td></tr><tr><td>Raw, dry <a href="/facts/Garlic/NschLR1S">garlic</a></td><td>17.5%</td></tr><tr><td>Raw, dry <a href="/facts/Leek/5f7HXCfS">leek</a></td><td>11.7%</td></tr><tr><td>Raw, dry <a href="/facts/Onion/2ajXf00d">onion</a></td><td>8.6%</td></tr><tr><td>Raw <a href="/facts/Asparagus/MoI6GaCN">asparagus</a></td><td>5%</td></tr><tr><td>Raw <a href="/facts/Wheat_bran/elUvkcd2">wheat bran</a></td><td>5%</td></tr><tr><td>Cooked <a href="/facts/Whole_wheat_flour/Uu1g6SvX">whole wheat flour</a></td><td>4.8%</td></tr><tr><td>Raw <a href="/facts/Banana/D6r2qPPq">banana</a></td><td>1%</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>While there is no broad consensus on an ideal daily serving of prebiotics, recommendations typically range from 4 to 8 grams (0.14–0.28 oz) for general digestive health support, to 15 grams (0.53 oz) or more for those with active digestive disorders. Given an average 6 grams (0.21 oz) serving, below are the amounts of prebiotic foods required to achieve a daily serving of prebiotic fiber: </p> Amount of food needed for 6 g of <a href="/facts/Fructan/BeIM3gok">fructan</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a><table><tbody><tr><th scope="col">Food</th><th scope="col">Amount</th></tr><tr><td>Raw chicory root</td><td>9.3 g (0.33 oz)</td></tr><tr><td>Raw Jerusalem artichoke</td><td>19 g (0.67 oz)</td></tr><tr><td>Raw dandelion greens</td><td>24.7 g (0.87 oz)</td></tr><tr><td>Raw garlic</td><td>34.3 g (1.21 oz)</td></tr><tr><td>Raw leek</td><td>51.3 g (1.81 oz)</td></tr><tr><td>Raw onion</td><td>69.8 g (2.46 oz)</td></tr><tr><td>Cooked onion</td><td>120 g (4.2 oz)</td></tr><tr><td>Raw asparagus</td><td>120 g (4.2 oz)</td></tr><tr><td>Raw wheat bran</td><td>120 g (4.2 oz)</td></tr><tr><td>Cooked whole wheat flour</td><td>125 g (4.4 oz)</td></tr><tr><td>Raw banana</td><td>600 g (1.3 lb)</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="research">Research</h2> <p>Preliminary research has demonstrated potential effects on calcium and other mineral absorption,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Immune_system/HRCTf1pb">immune system</a> effectiveness,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Bowel/nK2zwqBS">bowel</a> acidity, reduction of <a href="/facts/Colorectal_cancer/nV592sW7">colorectal cancer</a> risk,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Inflammatory_bowel_disease/RuxcPW5A">inflammatory bowel disease</a> (<a href="/facts/Crohn%2527s_disease/zm55cBtd">Crohn's disease</a> or <a href="/facts/Ulcerative_colitis/BIkyFzRj">ulcerative colitis</a>),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Hypertension/wlAvBfcf">hypertension</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Defecation/EBv8o15S">defecation</a> frequency.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> Prebiotics may be effective in decreasing the number of infectious episodes needing antibiotics and the total number of infections in children aged 0–24 months.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> </p><p>No good evidence shows that prebiotics are effective in preventing or treating allergies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> </p><p>While research demonstrates that prebiotics lead to increased production of <a href="/facts/Short-chain_fatty_acid/bgj2XGRf">short-chain fatty acids</a> (SCFA),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> more research is required to establish a direct causal connection. Prebiotics may be beneficial to <a href="/facts/Inflammatory_bowel_disease/RuxcPW5A">inflammatory bowel disease</a> or Crohn's disease through production of SCFA as nourishment for colonic walls, and mitigation of ulcerative colitis symptoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> </p><p>The sudden addition of substantial quantities of prebiotics to the diet may result in an increase in <a href="/facts/Fermentation/rxaDr28b">fermentation</a>, leading to increased gas production, <a href="/facts/Bloating/GnjG2Mdz">bloating</a> or <a href="/facts/Bowel_movement/EBv8o15S">bowel movement</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> Production of SCFA and fermentation quality are reduced during long-term diets of low fiber intake.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> Until bacterial flora are gradually established to rehabilitate or restore intestinal bacteria, nutrient absorption may be impaired and colonic transit time temporarily increased with a rapid addition of higher prebiotic intake.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> </p> <h3>Genetic modification</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Genetically_modified_crops/vKkn4oVs">Genetically modified plants</a> have been created in research labs with upregulated inulin production.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Antibiotic/sF1kIfxg">Antibiotic</a> – Antimicrobial substance active against bacteria</li> <li><a href="/facts/Mannan_Oligosaccharide_based_nutritional_supplements_(MOS)/PKJPSrwF">Mannan Oligosaccharide based nutritional supplements (MOS)</a> – Polysaccharides formed from mannosePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/facts/Prebiotic_scores/eRXNrgzJ">Prebiotic scores</a> – Measure of effects of prebioticsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/facts/Probiotic/gQNAN6ly">Probiotic</a> – Microorganisms said to provide health benefits when consumed</li> <li><a href="/facts/Psychobiotic/cszGl9En">Psychobiotic</a> – Microorganisms giving mental health effects</li> <li><a href="/facts/Resistant_starch/lmeyF7Rd">Resistant starch</a> – Dietary fiber</li> <li><a href="/facts/Synbiotics/XdCHaK1S">Synbiotics</a> – Nutritional supplements</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Frank W. Jackson, <i>PREbiotics, Not Probiotics</i>. 2013, Jacksong GI Medical. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0991102709.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Prebiotics. <ul><li><a href="http://www.isapp.net/">International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Hutkins RW; Krumbeck JA; Bindels LB; Cani PD; Fahey G Jr.; Goh YJ; Hamaker B; Martens EC; Mills DA; Rastal RA; Vaughan E; Sanders ME (2016). "Prebiotics: why definitions matter". Curr Opin Biotechnol. 37: 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2015.09.001. PMC 4744122. PMID 26431716. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4744122" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4744122</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Hutkins RW; Krumbeck JA; Bindels LB; Cani PD; Fahey G Jr.; Goh YJ; Hamaker B; Martens EC; Mills DA; Rastal RA; Vaughan E; Sanders ME (2016). "Prebiotics: why definitions matter". Curr Opin Biotechnol. 37: 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2015.09.001. PMC 4744122. PMID 26431716. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4744122" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4744122</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Hutkins RW; Krumbeck JA; Bindels LB; Cani PD; Fahey G Jr.; Goh YJ; Hamaker B; Martens EC; Mills DA; Rastal RA; Vaughan E; Sanders ME (2016). "Prebiotics: why definitions matter". Curr Opin Biotechnol. 37: 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2015.09.001. PMC 4744122. 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