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Gordon Riots
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<h2 id="background">Background</h2> <p>The stated intention of the Papists Act 1778 was, as its preamble notes, to mitigate some of the official discrimination against Roman Catholics in Great Britain. It absolved Catholics from taking the religious oath when joining the <a href="/facts/British_Armed_Forces/9XVvWRfp">British Armed Forces</a> as well as granting a few and limited liberties. There were strong expedient reasons for this change. British military forces at the time were stretched very thinly in what had become a global American War of Independence, with conflicts ongoing with France, Spain, and the new United States. The recruitment of Catholics would be a significant help to address this shortfall of manpower. </p><p>The 1698 anti-Catholic laws had largely been ignored for many years and were rarely enforced. Because of this, many leading Catholics were opposed to the repeal of these laws, fearing it would stir up anti-Catholic sentiment for little practical return.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> It was also pointed out that large numbers of Catholics, recruited in Ireland and the <a href="/facts/Scottish_Highlands/wJoWjcUe">Scottish Highlands</a>, were already serving in the military. In spite of this, the government decided to press ahead with the Bill, and had it introduced in Parliament by <a href="/facts/Sir_George_Savile%2c_8th_Baronet/AMa64C7p">Sir George Savile</a>. </p> <h3>Protestant Association</h3> <p>The Protestant Association of London had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including <a href="/facts/Rowland_Hill_(preacher)/KgUyIpEM">Rowland Hill</a>, <a href="/facts/Erasmus_Middleton/ywXIqJ7j">Erasmus Middleton</a>, and <a href="/facts/John_Rippon/usdVCKrp">John Rippon</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Lord_George_Gordon/IB7IF5G3">Lord George Gordon</a> became its president in 1779, in an effort to force the repeal of the Papists Act.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> An articulate propagandist, though eccentric, Gordon inflamed the mob with fears of Papism and a return to <a href="/facts/Absolute_monarchy/bw15yYtX">absolute monarchical rule</a>. He implied that Catholics in the military would, given a chance, join forces with their co-religionists on the Continent and attack Britain. He enjoyed popularity in Scotland where he took part in a successful campaign to prevent the same legislation from being introduced into <a href="/facts/Scots_law/F6r9UVLt">Scots law</a>, although the Act continued in force in England and Wales and in Ireland. The success in obstructing the law in Scotland led Gordon to believe he could enjoy similar success in the rest of Britain and Ireland. Early in 1780 Gordon had several audiences with <a href="/facts/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom/1RGERms7">King George III</a> but was unable to convince him of what he saw as the dangers of the act. George III initially humoured Gordon, but grew increasingly irritated with him and eventually refused any future audiences. </p><p>The political climate deteriorated rapidly. On 29 May 1780, Gordon called a meeting of the Protestant Association, and his followers subsequently marched on the <a href="/facts/House_of_Commons/D7fJpmYv">House of Commons</a> to deliver a petition demanding the repeal of the Act. </p> <h3>Other causes</h3> <p>After the first march to Parliament, further riots occurred involving groups whose grievances were nationalist, economic, or political, rather than religious. Aside from the issue of Catholic emancipation, it has also been suggested that the driving force of the riots was Britain's poor economic situation: the loss of trade during the war had led to falling wages, rising prices, and periodic unemployment. As Rudé noted, there was no general attack on the Catholic community, "the victims of the riots" being distinguished by the fact they were "on the whole, persons of substance".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>Voting in parliamentary elections was restricted by a property threshold, so most Londoners were unable to vote and many hoped for reforms to make Parliament more representative of the people. However, <a href="/facts/Paul_Monod/uo4x4Eos">Paul Monod</a> has argued that "no matter how much one would like to interpret the Gordon Riots ... as economically motivated, they remain fundamentally anti-Catholic in character".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p><p>Shortly after the riots had broken out, the <a href="/facts/Charles_Lennox%2c_3rd_Duke_of_Richmond/fPMIfPfd">Duke of Richmond</a> suggested that they were directly attributable to the passing of the <a href="/facts/Quebec_Act_(1774)/9E58E1cc">Quebec Act</a> six years before, which, among other provisions, removed the reference to the Protestant faith from the oath of allegiance, and guaranteed free practice of Catholicism. This view was ridiculed by many of his colleagues.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>Another suggested cause was Britain's weakened international position, which had arisen from the country's isolation in Europe and the disappointing news coming from the ongoing war.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> Some rioters were against the continuation of the war, and many strongly supported American independence,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> while others were angry that Britain's war effort was being mishandled by <a href="/facts/Lord_North/jM2Eex8h">Lord North</a>. In many cases a mix of issues blended together and drove people to take part in the rioting. </p> <h2 id="riots">Riots</h2> <h3>March on Parliament</h3> <p>On 2 June 1780 a huge crowd, estimated at 40,000 to 60,000 strong, assembled and marched on the Houses of Parliament. Many carried flags and banners proclaiming "<a href="/facts/Popery/mSwfE2YM">No Popery</a>", and most wore blue <a href="/facts/Cockade/LeDFgmh5">cockades</a> which had become the symbol of their movement. As they marched, their numbers swelled. They attempted to force their way into the House of Commons, but without success. Gordon, petition in hand, and wearing in his hat the blue cockade of the Protestant Association, entered the Commons and presented the petition. Outside, the situation quickly got out of hand and a riot erupted. Members of the <a href="/facts/House_of_Lords/ycQphmgj">House of Lords</a> were attacked as they arrived, and a number of carriages were vandalised and destroyed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p><p>Despite being aware of the possibility of trouble, the authorities had failed to take steps to prevent violence breaking out. The Prime Minister, Lord North, had forgotten to issue an order mobilising the small number of <a href="/facts/Constables/ceBQg6vn">Constables</a> in the area. Those that were present in the House of Commons were not strong enough to take on the angry mob. Eventually a detachment of soldiers was summoned, and they dispersed the crowd without violence. Inside the House of Commons, the petition was overwhelmingly dismissed by a vote of 192 to 6.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <h3>Embassies attacked</h3> <p>Once the mob around Parliament had dispersed, it seemed to the government that the worst of the disorder was over. However, the same night a crowd gathered and attacked the Roman Catholic <a href="/facts/Sardinian_Embassy_Chapel/oXNq7L20">Sardinian Embassy Chapel</a> in <a href="/facts/Lincoln%2527s_Inn_Fields/gEmlmIC4">Lincoln's Inn Fields</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Bow_Street_Runners/epueBUs5">Bow Street Runners</a> and soldiers were called out and made thirteen arrests, although most of the <a href="/facts/Leadership/37hL95TH">ringleaders</a> had managed to escape. The same night <a href="/facts/Church_of_Our_Lady_of_the_Assumption_and_St_Gregory/ENCpIVbg">the chapel</a> of the <a href="/facts/Electorate_of_Bavaria/2b5PjLKA">Bavarian</a> Embassy in Warwick Street, <a href="/facts/Soho/Rawkwhdy">Soho</a>, was destroyed<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> and crowds caused random violence in streets known to house rich Catholics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> <h3>Moorfields</h3> <p>The area of <a href="/facts/Moorfields/KHVL0QJE">Moorfields</a>, one of the poorest parts of the city, was the home of many Irish immigrant workers and had a large area of open ground where crowds could assemble. Despite the appeal of a prominent Irish merchant, James Malo, to the <a href="/facts/Lord_Mayor_of_London/28CFLNke">Lord Mayor</a>, <a href="/facts/Brackley_Kennett/nyEASYm3">Brackley Kennett</a>, no additional protection was offered to the area. During 3 June a crowd had gathered in Moorfields, and by nightfall it began to go on the rampage. Malo's house was amongst the many to be sacked and burned.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Newgate_Prison/mv3U0Cwd">Newgate Prison</a>, where rioters arrested on 2 June were being held, was attacked and largely destroyed, as was <a href="/facts/The_Clink/m67tYxbq">The Clink</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> This allowed large numbers of prisoners to escape, many of whom were never recaptured. Severe destruction was inflicted on Catholic churches and homes and chapels on the grounds of several embassies, as well as on <a href="/facts/New_Prison/nYMEYTLl">New Prison</a>, <a href="/facts/Fleet_Prison/sxnh4A5e">Fleet Prison</a>, and the house of the Lord Chief Justice, <a href="/facts/William_Murray%2c_1st_Earl_of_Mansfield/6GuAN23H">William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield</a>, including the destruction of the house's library.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> On 7 June, called "Black Wednesday" by <a href="/facts/Horace_Walpole/bSwBhBfo">Horace Walpole</a>, the riot reached its climax. An attempt on the Bank of England was narrowly averted when a combination of the London Military Association and regular troops repulsed rioters, resulting in heavy casualties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h3>Army repression</h3> <p>The army was called out on 7 June and given orders to fire upon groups of four or more who refused to disperse. About 285 people were shot dead, with another 200 wounded. Around 450 of the rioters were arrested. Of those arrested, about twenty or thirty were later tried and executed. Gordon was arrested and charged with high treason but was acquitted. Brackley Kennett, the Lord Mayor, was convicted of <a href="/facts/Criminal_negligence/qWfCNmV2">criminal negligence</a> for not reading out the <a href="/facts/Riot_Act/qMG1TIDh">Riot Act</a> and was given a £1,000 fine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> The military units which dealt with the rioters included the <a href="/facts/Household_Cavalry/NpYyfuH4">Horse Guards</a>, <a href="/facts/Foot_guards/to6bKsys">Foot Guards</a>, <a href="/facts/Inns_of_Court_Regiment/75BfVxun">Inns of Court Yeomanry</a>, the <a href="/facts/Honourable_Artillery_Company/YTVsIsf1">Honourable Artillery Company</a>, line infantry including the <a href="/facts/Queen%2527s_Royal_Regiment_(West_Surrey)/40CW2n8S">2nd (Queen's Royal) Regiment</a>, and militia from the city and neighbouring counties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> The defence of the Bank of England was conducted by the <a href="/facts/9th_(East_Norfolk)_Regiment_of_Foot/gTCScRJ2">9th Regiment of Foot</a> under the command of <a href="/facts/Thomas_Twisleton%2c_13th_Baron_Saye_and_Sele/LKzo8Ar7">Thomas Twisleton, 13th Baron Saye and Sele</a>. </p> <h2 id="aftermath">Aftermath</h2> <p>The riots damaged the reputation of Britain across Europe, where many saw British <a href="/facts/Constitutional_monarchy/C0TtVRq8">constitutional monarchy</a> as an inherently unstable form of government. This came at a time when Britain was searching for allies, particularly Catholic Austria, in the American War of Independence to challenge the strong coalition the French had built.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> Britain had also initiated secret negotiations with Catholic Spain to end Spanish support of the United States. After learning of the riots, the Spanish government pulled back from peace negotiations with Britain, concerned that the disorder would lead to a widespread collapse of the current British administration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p><p>The riots highlighted the problems Britain faced by not having a professional police force, a notion which was opposed as foreign and <a href="/facts/Absolutism_(European_history)/bw15yYtX">absolutist</a>. The day after the riots broke out, the <a href="/facts/William_Petty%2c_2nd_Earl_of_Shelburne/1rC5VCP2">Earl of Shelburne</a> shocked many by proposing in parliament that Britain should consider forming a force modelled on the French police.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p><p>The riots damaged the popularity of the radical politician <a href="/facts/John_Wilkes/BCwSHexx">John Wilkes</a>, who led citizen militia against the rioters.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> Many of his followers saw this as a betrayal; some of them may have been among the rioters. A pamphlet and a book of poems defending the role of Gordon were written and published by the polemicist and hymn-writer <a href="/facts/Maria_De_Fleury/gHswyN1g">Maria De Fleury</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p><p>The events at the Bank of England started a tradition where a detachment of soldiers, usually from the <a href="/facts/Brigade_of_Guards/j3v0AgUB">Brigade of Guards</a>, would march to the bank to perform security duties. Until 1963 the duty was performed by the Guards in <a href="/facts/Home_Service_Dress/YHC6H8cK">Home Service Dress</a> with <a href="/facts/Bearskin/oWPFMncQ">bearskin</a>, though tennis shoes were worn inside the bank. From that date until 31 March 1973 the detachment became more functional than ceremonial, doing their duties in service dress with automatic weapons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="cultural-references">Cultural references</h2> <p><a href="/facts/George_Walker_(novelist)/q8x8Ch41">George Walker</a>'s anti-<a href="/facts/Jacobin/423QnNv4">Jacobin</a> novel <i>The Vagabond</i> (1799) anachronistically resituates the Gordon Riots amidst the political events of the 1790s. Its narrator unwittingly becomes a prominent figure in the riots, which Walker depicts as solely destructive and acquisitive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Maria_Edgeworth/0K8lNYk6">Maria Edgeworth</a>'s 1817 novel <i><a href="/facts/Harrington_(novel)/lwCxj5Av">Harrington</a></i> contains a vivid evocation of the Gordon Riots, with two unsympathetic characters taken for Papists and finding refuge in the home of the rich Spanish Jew, the father of the young Jewish woman at the centre of the love story. </p><p><a href="/facts/Charles_Dickens/B54mQHJs">Charles Dickens</a>' 1841 novel <i><a href="/facts/Barnaby_Rudge/evXrD6d5">Barnaby Rudge</a></i> is centered on a long and detailed description of the Gordon Riots and features Lord George in a prominent role. </p><p><a href="/facts/John_Creasey/WSncbjPE">John Creasey</a>'s 1974 novel <i>The Masters of Bow Street</i> depicts the Gordon Riots and the recalcitrance of Lord North to the establishment of a police force. </p><p>In <a href="/facts/Bernard_Cornwell/FTAKLxfb">Bernard Cornwell</a>'s <i><a href="/facts/Sharpe_(novel_series)/XepqEj0H">Sharpe</a></i> novels (1981–2007), the protagonist Richard Sharpe's mother was killed during the riots while he was still a child. </p><p>In the film <i><a href="/facts/The_Great_Rock%2527n%2527Roll_Swindle/T81bIxCC">The Great Rock'n'Roll Swindle</a></i>, a scene set in 1780 refers to the Gordon Riots, showing the <a href="/facts/Sex_Pistols/WeRGWmBA">Sex Pistols</a> hung in effigy. </p><p><i>BABYLONdon</i>, a novel by English SF/Fantasy author <a href="/facts/John_Whitbourn/W3hg9hM8">John Whitbourn</a> (2020), blends a detailed depiction of the Gordon Riots with supernatural plot elements and an apocalyptic denouement. </p><p><i><a href="/facts/The_Invisibles/BK16EIsA">The Invisibles</a></i>, a comic series by <a href="/facts/Grant_Morrison/LRSIoIvd">Grant Morrison</a> features a principal character mostly known as <a href="/facts/King_Mob/9kSqgfyd">King Mob</a>. </p><p>Mentioned by Peter O'Toole's character to Aldo Ray in <i>The Day They Robbed The Bank of England</i>, referencing that he and his men had been guarding the titular bank in a certain fashion since "the Gordon Riots in 1780." </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Anti-Catholicism_in_the_United_Kingdom/c0xMCrFl">Anti-Catholicism in the United Kingdom</a></li></ul> <h3>Notes</h3> <h2 id="sources">Sources</h2> <ul><li>Babington, Anthony (1990). <i>Military intervention in Britain: from the Gordon riots to the Gibraltar Incident</i>. Routledge.</li> <li>Black, Eugene Charlton (1963). "The Tumultuous Petitioners: The Protestant Association in Scotland, 1778–1780". <i>Review of Politics</i>. 25 (2): 183–211. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS003467050000485X">10.1017/S003467050000485X</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146502784">146502784</a>.</li> <li>Boeker, Uwe. <a href="http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/edoc/ia/eese/artic23/boeker/5_2003.html"><i>The Gordon Riots</i></a>. Dresden University of Technology – TU Dresden, Institute for English and American Studies.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Susan_Burney/VwWyC3dK">Burney, Susan</a> (2012). "Journal Letter, June 5–12, 1780". In Olleson, Philip (ed.). <i>The Journals and Letters of Susan Burney</i>. Ashgate. pp. 168–181. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7546-5592-3.</li> <li>Green, Dominic (2013). "The Making of a "Protestant Rabbin". The Cultural Transfers of Lord George Gordon, 1781–1793". In Schulze, Thies (ed.). <i>Grenzueberschreitende Religion. Vergleichs- und Kulturtransferstudien zur neuzeitlichen Geschichte</i>. Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 165–184.</li> <li>Haydon, Colin (1993). <i>Anti-Catholicism in Eighteenth-Century England, C. 1714–80: A Political and Social Study</i>.</li> <li>Haydon, Colin (2013). "Eighteenth-Century English Anti-Catholicism: Contexts, Continuity and Diminution.". In Wolffe, John (ed.). <a href="http://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9781137289728"><i>Protestant-Catholic Conflict from the Reformation to the Twenty-first Century</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 46–70.</li> <li>Hibbert, Christopher (1959). <i>King Mob: The Story of Lord George Gordon and the Riots of 1780</i>. Dorset Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-88029-399-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help); popular history <a href="https://archive.org/details/kingmobstoryoflo0000chri/page/n5/mode/2up">online</a></li> <li>Jones, Brad A. (2013). "'In Favour of Popery': Patriotism, Protestantism, and the Gordon Riots in the Revolutionary British Atlantic". <i>Journal of British Studies</i>. 52 (1): 79–102. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fjbr.2012.60">10.1017/jbr.2012.60</a>.</li> <li>McDonagh, Patrick (2006). "Barnaby Rudge, 'idiocy' and paternalism: Assisting the 'poor idiot'". <i>Disability & Society</i>. 21 (5): 411–423. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09687590600785779">10.1080/09687590600785779</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144804564">144804564</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/John_Hungerford_Pollen_(junior)/xUjFW7Iy">Pollen, John Hungerford</a> (1909). <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06649c.htm">"Gordon Riots"</a>. In Herbermann, Charles George (ed.). <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. New York: Robert Appleton Co.</li> <li>Rudé, George (July 1955). "The Gordon Riots". <i>History Today</i>. 5 (7): 429–437.</li> <li>Rudé, George (1956). "The Gordon Riots: A Study of the Rioters and their Victims". <i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society</i>. 5th. 6 (6): 93–114. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3678842">10.2307/3678842</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3678842">3678842</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155720228">155720228</a>.</li> <li>Rudé, George (1974). <i>The Gordon Riots, in Paris and London in the Eighteenth Century</i>. London: Fontana/Collins.</li> <li>Rudé, George (2005). "'Church and King' Riots". <i>The Crowd in History</i>. London: Serif.</li> <li>Rogers, Nicholas (1998). "The Gordon Riots". <i>Crowds, Culture and Politics in Georgian Britain</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 152–175.</li> <li>Nicholson, John (1985). <i>The Great Liberty Riot of 1780</i>. Bozo. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-904063-16-X.</li> <li>Simms, Brendan (2008). <i>Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire</i>. Penguin Books.</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Atherton, Jonathan. "Obstinate juries, impudent barristers and scandalous verdicts? Compensating the victims of the Gordon Riots of 1780 and the Priestley Riots of 1791." <i>Historical Research</i> 88.242 (2015): 650–673.</li> <li>Awcock, Hannah. "Handbills, rumours, and blue cockades: Communication during the 1780 Gordon Riots." <i>Journal of Historical Geography</i> 74#1 (2021): 1–9. <a href="https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/files/219828249/366._Awcock.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Fischer, Pascal. "Blending spaces: the Gordon riots in literature." in <i>Resistance and the City</i> (Brill, 2018) pp. 98–112.</li> <li>Flynn, Carol Houlihan. "Whatever Happened to the Gordon Riots?" in <i>A Companion to the Eighteenth‐Century English Novel and Culture</i> (2005): 459–480 <a href="https://bkbcollege.in/upload/dpt_book/1669358434.pdf#page=475">online</a>.</li> <li>Fraser, Antonia. <i>The King and the Catholics: England, Ireland, and the fight for religious freedom, 1780–1829</i> (Anchor, 2019) <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bW24DwAAQBAJ&dq=Gordon+riot&pg=PR9">online</a>.</li> <li>Groth, Helen. "Rioting, Nineteenth-Century Fiction, and the Limits of Liberalism." (Dissertation, University of New South Wales; 2017) <a href="https://shc.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2018-01/Occasion_v11_groth_final.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Haydon, Colin. "‘Popery at St. James’s’: The Conspiracy Theses of William Payne, Thomas Hollis, and Lord George Gordon." in <i>Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theory in Early Modern Europe</i> (Routledge, 2017) pp. 173–195.</li> <li>Joyce, Peter, and Wendy Laverick. "Crowd Disorders, 1750–1800." in <i>History of Policing, Crime, Disorder, Punishment</i> ( Springer International, 2023) pp. 85–105.</li> <li>Rabin, Dana Y. "Imperial disruptions: City, nation, and empire in the Gordon Riots." in <i>Britain and its internal others, 1750–1800</i> (Manchester University Press, 2017) pp. 108–144.</li> <li>Rogers, Nicholas. "Nights of Fire: The Gordon Riots of 1780 and the Politics of War." in <i>Crowd Actions in Britain and France from the Middle Ages to the Modern World</i> (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2015) pp. 124–145.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110612213714/http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/LGNL_Services/Leisure_and_culture/Records_and_archives/Education_at_LMA/Galleries/gordon_riots.htm">Contemporary illustrations: burning of the Newgate Prison and proclamation of George III. of June 5, 1780 (Corporation of London)</a></li> <li><i><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/917">Barnaby Rudge A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty</a></i>, Charles Dickens, from <a href="/facts/Project_Gutenberg/2l0R6GgQ">Project Gutenberg</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Brayley, Edward Wedlake; James Norris Brewer; Joseph Nightingale (1810). London and Middlesex. Printed by W. Wilson, for Vernor, Hood, and Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Wedlake_Brayley" target="_blank">/wiki/Edward_Wedlake_Brayley</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"Lord George Gordon". Archived from the original on 1 June 2009. Retrieved 25 July 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090601132538/http://tarlton.law.utexas.edu/lpop/etext/newgate4/gordonlg.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090601132538/http://tarlton.law.utexas.edu/lpop/etext/newgate4/gordonlg.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Horn, David Bayne; Mary Ransome (1996). English Historical Documents 1714–1783. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-14372-1. <a href="978-0-415-14372-1" target="_blank">978-0-415-14372-1</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Ian Haywood (11 March 2013). "The Gordon Riots of 1780: London in Flames, a Nation in Ruins". Gresham College. Retrieved 20 September 2021. <a href="https://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/the-gordon-riots-of-1780-london-in-flames-a-nation-in-ruins" target="_blank">https://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/the-gordon-riots-of-1780-london-in-flames-a-nation-in-ruins</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Dorothy Marshall, Eighteenth Century England (1974) pp. 469–472. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Burke, Edmund (1796). A Letter to a Noble Lord. The Harvard Classics. <a href="https://www.bartleby.com/24/4/1.html" target="_blank">https://www.bartleby.com/24/4/1.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Hibbert pp. 24–27 <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Innes, Joanna (2009). Inferior Politics: Social Problems and Social Policies in Eighteenth-Century Britain. Oxford University Press. p. 446. ISBN 978-0-19-160677-9. Retrieved 15 September 2013. <a href="978-0-19-160677-9" target="_blank">978-0-19-160677-9</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Hibbert pp. 31–32 <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Howell, Thomas Bayly (ed.) A Complete Collection of State Trials and Proceedings for High Treason and Other Crimes and Misdemeanors from the earliest period to the year 1783, with notes and other illustrations, Vol. 21. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown (1816), p. 563 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ad6YpE1POPwC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Ad6YpE1POPwC</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Rudé, (1974), p. 287 <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Paul Kleber Monod, Jacobitism and the English People, 1688–1788 (Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 163. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Hibbert pp. 63–64 <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Simms p. 633 <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>"The Gordon Riots of 1780: London in Flames, a Nation in Ruins". <a href="https://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/the-gordon-riots-of-1780-london-in-flames-a-nation-in-ruins" target="_blank">https://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/the-gordon-riots-of-1780-london-in-flames-a-nation-in-ruins</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Hibbert pp. 47–53 <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Hibbert p. 56 <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Riley, W. Edward; Gomme, Laurence, eds. (1912). "Lincoln's Inn Fields: The Church of SS. Anselm and Cecilia". Survey of London, volume 3: St Giles-in-the-Fields, pt I: Lincoln's Inn Fields. Institute of Historical Research. pp. 81–84. Retrieved 16 February 2013. <a href="http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=74157" target="_blank">http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=74157</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Hibbert, Christopher; Weinreb, Ben; Keay, John; Keay, Julia (2010). The London Encyclopedia (reprint, 3rd ed.). Pan Macmillan. p. 170. ISBN 9781405049252. <a href="9781405049252" target="_blank">9781405049252</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Bruton, J. Makali. "Church of the Assumption". The Historical Marker Database. J.J. Prats. Retrieved 6 March 2025. <a href="https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=211951" target="_blank">https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=211951</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Hibbert pp. 66–71 <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>"Southwark – Winchester House and Barclay's Brewery". British History Online. Retrieved 25 July 2009. <a href="http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=45264" target="_blank">http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=45264</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Devine, Tom M.; Young, John R. (6 January 2022). Eighteenth Century Scotland. Birlinn Ltd. ISBN 978-1-78885-553-2. <a href="978-1-78885-553-2" target="_blank">978-1-78885-553-2</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>George Rudé, "The Gordon Riots: A Study of the Rioters and Their Victims: The Alexander Prize Essay," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society Vol. 6 (1956), pp. 97–98 <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Babington p. 27 <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Philip Mansel, pp. 126–127, Pillars of Monarchy, ISBN 0-7043-2424-5 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Simms p. 640 <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Richard Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), pp. 59–60. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Hibbert pp. 64–65 <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>A Greater London Professional Police Force—the Metropolitan Police Service—was not established until 29 September 1829. The City of London Police would not be established until 1839. <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Police_Service" target="_blank">/wiki/Metropolitan_Police_Service</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Thomas, Peter D. G. (28 March 1996). John Wilkes: A Friend to Liberty. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-19-820544-9. <a href="978-0-19-820544-9" target="_blank">978-0-19-820544-9</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>The Feminist Companion to Literature in English, eds Virginia Blain, Patricia Clements and Isobel Grundy (London: Batsford, 1990), p. 276. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>p. 113 Lindsay, Oliver Once a Grenadier: The Grenadier Guards 1945–1995 Pen and Sword, 14 Mar 1996 <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Haywood, Ian (2006). Bloody Romanticism: Spectacular Violence and the Politics of Representation, 1776–1832. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 196–198. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>