Livermorium

<h2 id="introduction">Introduction</h2>
This section is an excerpt from <a href="/facts/Superheavy_element/9PjYvCc3">Superheavy element § Introduction</a>.[<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Superheavy_element&action=edit">edit</a>]
<h3>Synthesis of superheavy nuclei</h3>

A superheavy<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> <a href="/facts/Atomic_nucleus/orpIm5Xl">atomic nucleus</a> is created in a nuclear reaction that combines two other nuclei of unequal size<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a> into one; roughly, the more unequal the two nuclei in terms of <a href="/facts/Mass/HHdc8XmF">mass</a>, the greater the possibility that the two react.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> The material made of the heavier nuclei is made into a target, which is then bombarded by the <a href="/facts/Particle_beam/mg5EIlWb">beam</a> of lighter nuclei. Two nuclei can only <a href="/facts/Nuclear_fusion/hP0gLDqj">fuse</a> into one if they approach each other closely enough; normally, nuclei (all positively charged) repel each other due to <a href="/facts/Coulomb%2527s_law/V0lR5NKv">electrostatic repulsion</a>. The <a href="/facts/Strong_interaction/JjRsKcLg">strong interaction</a> can overcome this repulsion but only within a very short distance from a nucleus; beam nuclei are thus greatly <a href="/facts/Particle_accelerator/Pkuc08xC">accelerated</a> in order to make such repulsion insignificant compared to the velocity of the beam nucleus.[14] The energy applied to the beam nuclei to accelerate them can cause them to reach speeds as high as one-tenth of the <a href="/facts/Speed_of_light/sKSQwdNx">speed of light</a>. However, if too much energy is applied, the beam nucleus can fall apart.[14]
Coming close enough alone is not enough for two nuclei to fuse: when two nuclei approach each other, they usually remain together for about 10−20 seconds and then part ways (not necessarily in the same composition as before the reaction) rather than form a single nucleus.[14]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> This happens because during the attempted formation of a single nucleus, electrostatic repulsion tears apart the nucleus that is being formed.[14] Each pair of a target and a beam is characterized by its <a href="/facts/Cross_section_(physics)/lo014h2D">cross section</a>—the probability that fusion will occur if two nuclei approach one another expressed in terms of the transverse area that the incident particle must hit in order for the fusion to occur.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> This fusion may occur as a result of the quantum effect in which nuclei can <a href="/facts/Quantum_tunnelling/WU4NMrKx">tunnel</a> through electrostatic repulsion. If the two nuclei can stay close past that phase, multiple nuclear interactions result in redistribution of energy and an energy equilibrium.[14]

The resulting merger is an <a href="/facts/Excited_state/czcLYNnr">excited state</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a>—termed a <a href="/facts/Nuclear_reaction/202yClUr">compound nucleus</a>—and thus it is very unstable.[14] To reach a more stable state, the temporary merger may <a href="/facts/Nuclear_fission/LfkIylvm">fission</a> without formation of a more stable nucleus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> Alternatively, the compound nucleus may eject a few <a href="/facts/Neutron/oRCM1geb">neutrons</a>, which would carry away the excitation energy; if the latter is not sufficient for a neutron expulsion, the merger would produce a <a href="/facts/Gamma_ray/5Drf913J">gamma ray</a>. This happens in about 10−16 seconds after the initial nuclear collision and results in creation of a more stable nucleus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> The definition by the <a href="/facts/IUPAC%2fIUPAP_Joint_Working_Party/1mKaf9UW">IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party</a> (JWP) states that a <a href="/facts/Chemical_element/0jducgWD">chemical element</a> can only be recognized as discovered if a nucleus of it has not <a href="/facts/Radioactive_decay/Ya6FVjt4">decayed</a> within 10−14 seconds. This value was chosen as an estimate of how long it takes a nucleus to acquire <a href="/facts/Electron/L0KBo5cW">electrons</a> and thus display its chemical properties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>

<h3>Decay and detection</h3>
The beam passes through the target and reaches the next chamber, the separator; if a new nucleus is produced, it is carried with this beam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> In the separator, the newly produced nucleus is separated from other nuclides (that of the original beam and any other reaction products)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> and transferred to a <a href="/facts/Semiconductor_detector/HzvpIobR">surface-barrier detector</a>, which stops the nucleus. The exact location of the upcoming impact on the detector is marked; also marked are its energy and the time of the arrival.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> The transfer takes about 10−6 seconds; in order to be detected, the nucleus must survive this long.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> The nucleus is recorded again once its decay is registered, and the location, the <a href="/facts/Decay_energy/g4wDGC8r">energy</a>, and the time of the decay are measured.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>
Stability of a nucleus is provided by the strong interaction. However, its range is very short; as nuclei become larger, its influence on the outermost <a href="/facts/Nucleon/6fguU9Xk">nucleons</a> (<a href="/facts/Proton/clCjepXP">protons</a> and neutrons) weakens. At the same time, the nucleus is torn apart by electrostatic repulsion between protons, and its range is not limited.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> Total <a href="/facts/Nuclear_binding_energy/PU8bREHW">binding energy</a> provided by the strong interaction increases linearly with the number of nucleons, whereas electrostatic repulsion increases with the square of the atomic number, i.e. the latter grows faster and becomes increasingly important for heavy and superheavy nuclei.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> Superheavy nuclei are thus theoretically predicted<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> and have so far been observed<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> to predominantly decay via decay modes that are caused by such repulsion: <a href="/facts/Alpha_decay/rCsHNIUE">alpha decay</a> and <a href="/facts/Spontaneous_fission/0QuJoVKI">spontaneous fission</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> Almost all alpha emitters have over 210 nucleons,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> and the lightest nuclide primarily undergoing spontaneous fission has 238.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> In both decay modes, nuclei are inhibited from decaying by corresponding <a href="/facts/Rectangular_potential_barrier/Cer7zMUn">energy barriers</a> for each mode, but they can be tunneled through.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>

Alpha particles are commonly produced in radioactive decays because the mass of an alpha particle per nucleon is small enough to leave some energy for the alpha particle to be used as kinetic energy to leave the nucleus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> Spontaneous fission is caused by electrostatic repulsion tearing the nucleus apart and produces various nuclei in different instances of identical nuclei fissioning.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> As the atomic number increases, spontaneous fission rapidly becomes more important: spontaneous fission partial half-lives decrease by 23 orders of magnitude from <a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">uranium</a> (element 92) to <a href="/facts/Nobelium/syRkloSw">nobelium</a> (element 102),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> and by 30 orders of magnitude from <a href="/facts/Thorium/ysdWH470">thorium</a> (element 90) to <a href="/facts/Fermium/Us3rnvG5">fermium</a> (element 100).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> The earlier <a href="/facts/Liquid_drop_model/XQhTYz7e">liquid drop model</a> thus suggested that spontaneous fission would occur nearly instantly due to disappearance of the <a href="/facts/Fission_barrier/Xt5xoTpB">fission barrier</a> for nuclei with about 280 nucleons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> The later <a href="/facts/Nuclear_shell_model/1Qgep495">nuclear shell model</a> suggested that nuclei with about 300 nucleons would form an <a href="/facts/Island_of_stability/XuxQzqjL">island of stability</a> in which nuclei will be more resistant to spontaneous fission and will primarily undergo alpha decay with longer half-lives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> Subsequent discoveries suggested that the predicted island might be further than originally anticipated; they also showed that nuclei intermediate between the long-lived actinides and the predicted island are deformed, and gain additional stability from shell effects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> Experiments on lighter superheavy nuclei,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> as well as those closer to the expected island,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> have shown greater than previously anticipated stability against spontaneous fission, showing the importance of shell effects on nuclei.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a>
Alpha decays are registered by the emitted alpha particles, and the decay products are easy to determine before the actual decay; if such a decay or a series of consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be easily determined.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> (That all decays within a decay chain were indeed related to each other is established by the location of these decays, which must be in the same place.)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> The known nucleus can be recognized by the specific characteristics of decay it undergoes such as decay energy (or more specifically, the <a href="/facts/Kinetic_energy/aJRxUd4p">kinetic energy</a> of the emitted particle).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> Spontaneous fission, however, produces various nuclei as products, so the original nuclide cannot be determined from its daughters.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a>

The information available to physicists aiming to synthesize a superheavy element is thus the information collected at the detectors: location, energy, and time of arrival of a particle to the detector, and those of its decay. The physicists analyze this data and seek to conclude that it was indeed caused by a new element and could not have been caused by a different nuclide than the one claimed. Often, provided data is insufficient for a conclusion that a new element was definitely created and there is no other explanation for the observed effects; errors in interpreting data have been made.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a>
<h2 id="history">History</h2>
<h3>Unsuccessful synthesis attempts</h3>
The first search for element 116, using the reaction between 248Cm and 48Ca, was performed in 1977 by Ken Hulet and his team at the <a href="/facts/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory/WuXIbIKz">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a> (LLNL). They were unable to detect any atoms of livermorium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> <a href="/facts/Yuri_Oganessian/69TJ9VyW">Yuri Oganessian</a> and his team at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions (FLNR) in the <a href="/facts/Joint_Institute_for_Nuclear_Research/JrSF8sQQ">Joint Institute for Nuclear Research</a> (JINR) subsequently attempted the reaction in 1978 and met failure. In 1985, in a joint experiment between Berkeley and Peter Armbruster's team at GSI, the result was again negative, with a calculated <a href="/facts/Cross_section_(physics)/lo014h2D">cross section</a> limit of 10–100 pb. Work on reactions with 48Ca, which had proved very useful in the synthesis of <a href="/facts/Nobelium/syRkloSw">nobelium</a> from the natPb+48Ca reaction, nevertheless continued at Dubna, with a superheavy element separator being developed in 1989, a search for target materials and starting of collaborations with LLNL being started in 1990, production of more intense 48Ca beams being started in 1996, and preparations for long-term experiments with 3 orders of magnitude higher sensitivity being performed in the early 1990s. This work led directly to the production of new isotopes of elements 112 to 118 in the reactions of 48Ca with actinide targets and the discovery of the 5 heaviest elements on the periodic table: <a href="/facts/Flerovium/Aa7uGMuG">flerovium</a>, <a href="/facts/Moscovium/QhSEr0H5">moscovium</a>, livermorium, <a href="/facts/Tennessine/eGCBDvEr">tennessine</a>, and <a href="/facts/Oganesson/zs5MQDjV">oganesson</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a>
In 1995, an international team led by <a href="/facts/Sigurd_Hofmann/4I8kKq2x">Sigurd Hofmann</a> at the <a href="/facts/Gesellschaft_f%25C3%25BCr_Schwerionenforschung/KeCJHKP0">Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung</a> (GSI) in <a href="/facts/Darmstadt/UzVdfNVQ">Darmstadt</a>, <a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a> attempted to synthesise element 116 in a radiative capture reaction (in which the compound nucleus de-excites through pure <a href="/facts/Gamma_emission/5Drf913J">gamma emission</a> without evaporating neutrons) between a <a href="/facts/Lead/EYljasJN">lead</a>-208 target and <a href="/facts/Selenium/k975NApC">selenium</a>-82 projectiles. No atoms of element 116 were identified.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a>

<h3>Unconfirmed discovery claims</h3>
In late 1998, Polish physicist <a href="/facts/Robert_Smola%25C5%2584czuk/qHwnDaCE">Robert Smolańczuk</a> published calculations on the fusion of atomic nuclei towards the synthesis of <a href="/facts/Superheavy_element/9PjYvCc3">superheavy atoms</a>, including <a href="/facts/Oganesson/zs5MQDjV">elements 118</a> and 116.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> His calculations suggested that it might be possible to make these two elements by fusing <a href="/facts/Lead/EYljasJN">lead</a> with <a href="/facts/Krypton/llkNlCke">krypton</a> under carefully controlled conditions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a>
In 1999, researchers at <a href="/facts/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory/tvjPSwC9">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> made use of these predictions and announced the discovery of elements 118 and 116, in a paper published in <a href="/facts/Physical_Review_Letters/rNP3XvYq">Physical Review Letters</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> and very soon after the results were reported in <a href="/facts/Science_(journal)/uTyzjkwD">Science</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> The researchers reported to have performed the <a href="/facts/Nuclear_reaction/202yClUr">reaction</a>

8636Kr + 20882Pb → 293118Og + <a href="/facts/Neutron/oRCM1geb">n</a> → 289116Lv + <a href="/facts/Alpha_particle/dzNMs9WP">α</a>
The following year, they published a retraction after researchers at other laboratories were unable to duplicate the results and the Berkeley lab itself was unable to duplicate them as well.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> In June 2002, the director of the lab announced that the original claim of the discovery of these two elements had been based on data fabricated by principal author <a href="/facts/Victor_Ninov/G9wpbGj9">Victor Ninov</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> The isotope 289Lv was finally discovered in 2024 at the JINR.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a>

<h3>Discovery</h3>
Livermorium was first synthesized on July 19, 2000, when scientists at <a href="/facts/Dubna/mn37rc4l">Dubna</a> (<a href="/facts/Joint_Institute_for_Nuclear_Research/JrSF8sQQ">JINR</a>) bombarded a <a href="/facts/Curium-248/WnMh6VLE">curium-248</a> target with accelerated <a href="/facts/Calcium-48/cqqfNkMY">calcium-48</a> ions. A single atom was detected, decaying by <a href="/facts/Alpha_decay/rCsHNIUE">alpha emission</a> with <a href="/facts/Decay_energy/g4wDGC8r">decay energy</a> 10.54 <a href="/facts/Electronvolt/YMT1fqX9">MeV</a> to an isotope of <a href="/facts/Flerovium/Aa7uGMuG">flerovium</a>. The results were published in December 2000.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a>

24896Cm + 4820Ca → 296116Lv* → 293116Lv + 3 10n → 289114Fl + α
The <a href="/facts/Decay_product/hT0obfLv">daughter</a> flerovium isotope had properties matching those of a flerovium isotope first synthesized in June 1999, which was originally assigned to 288Fl,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> implying an assignment of the parent livermorium isotope to 292Lv. Later work in December 2002 indicated that the synthesized flerovium isotope was actually 289Fl, and hence the assignment of the synthesized livermorium atom was correspondingly altered to 293Lv.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a>

<h3>Road to confirmation</h3>
Two further atoms were reported by the institute during their second experiment during April–May 2001.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> In the same experiment they also detected a decay chain which corresponded to the first observed decay of <a href="/facts/Flerovium/Aa7uGMuG">flerovium</a> in December 1998, which had been assigned to 289Fl.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> No flerovium isotope with the same properties as the one found in December 1998 has ever been observed again, even in repeats of the same reaction. Later it was found that 289Fl has different decay properties and that the first observed flerovium atom may have been its <a href="/facts/Nuclear_isomer/L8DHcqnk">nuclear isomer</a> 289mFl.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> The observation of 289mFl in this series of experiments may indicate the formation of a parent isomer of livermorium, namely 293mLv, or a rare and previously unobserved decay branch of the already-discovered state 293Lv to 289mFl. Neither possibility is certain, and research is required to positively assign this activity. Another possibility suggested is the assignment of the original December 1998 atom to 290Fl, as the low beam energy used in that original experiment makes the 2n channel plausible; its parent could then conceivably be 294Lv, but this assignment would still need confirmation in the 248Cm(48Ca,2n)294Lv reaction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a>
The team repeated the experiment in April–May 2005 and detected 8 atoms of livermorium. The measured decay data confirmed the assignment of the first-discovered <a href="/facts/Isotope/KD9B1y6o">isotope</a> as 293Lv. In this run, the team also observed the isotope 292Lv for the first time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> In further experiments from 2004 to 2006, the team replaced the curium-248 target with the lighter <a href="/facts/Curium/LMyWXg8l">curium</a> isotope <a href="/facts/Curium-245/WnMh6VLE">curium-245</a>. Here evidence was found for the two isotopes 290Lv and 291Lv.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a>
In May 2009, the <a href="/facts/IUPAC/2AV6myCK">IUPAC</a>/<a href="/facts/IUPAP/ah3BodlS">IUPAP</a> Joint Working Party reported on the discovery of <a href="/facts/Copernicium/EhgyBkg0">copernicium</a> and acknowledged the discovery of the isotope 283Cn.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> This implied the de facto discovery of the isotope 291Lv, from the acknowledgment of the data relating to its granddaughter 283Cn, although the livermorium data was not absolutely critical for the demonstration of copernicium's discovery. Also in 2009, confirmation from Berkeley and the <a href="/facts/Gesellschaft_f%25C3%25BCr_Schwerionenforschung/KeCJHKP0">Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung</a> (GSI) in Germany came for the flerovium isotopes 286 to 289, immediate daughters of the four known livermorium isotopes. In 2011, IUPAC evaluated the Dubna team experiments of 2000–2006. Whereas they found the earliest data (not involving 291Lv and 283Cn) inconclusive, the results of 2004–2006 were accepted as identification of livermorium, and the element was officially recognized as having been discovered.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a>
The synthesis of livermorium has been separately confirmed at the GSI (2012) and <a href="/facts/RIKEN/dbVUF6zN">RIKEN</a> (2014 and 2016).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> In the 2012 GSI experiment, one chain tentatively assigned to 293Lv was shown to be inconsistent with previous data; it is believed that this chain may instead originate from an <a href="/facts/Nuclear_isomer/L8DHcqnk">isomeric state</a>, 293mLv.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> In the 2016 RIKEN experiment, one atom that may be assigned to 294Lv was seemingly detected, alpha decaying to 290Fl and 286Cn, which underwent spontaneous fission; however, the first alpha from the livermorium nuclide produced was missed, and the assignment to 294Lv is still uncertain though plausible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a>

<h3>Naming</h3>

Using <a href="/facts/Mendeleev%2527s_predicted_elements/C4vgW0uy">Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements</a>, livermorium is sometimes called eka-<a href="/facts/Polonium/G4rzsyjP">polonium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> In 1979 IUPAC recommended that the <a href="/facts/Placeholder_name/zf6Whtye">placeholder</a> <a href="/facts/Systematic_element_name/vJt86yzX">systematic element name</a> ununhexium (Uuh)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> be used until the discovery of the element was confirmed and a name was decided. Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> who called it "element 116", with the symbol of E116, (116), or even simply 116.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a>
According to IUPAC recommendations, the discoverer or discoverers of a new element have the right to suggest a name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> The discovery of livermorium was recognized by the Joint Working Party (JWP) of IUPAC on 1 June 2011, along with that of <a href="/facts/Flerovium/Aa7uGMuG">flerovium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> According to the vice-director of JINR, the Dubna team originally wanted to name element 116 moscovium, after the <a href="/facts/Moscow_Oblast/699h9DNN">Moscow Oblast</a> in which Dubna is located,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> but it was later decided to use this name for <a href="/facts/Moscovium/QhSEr0H5">element 115</a> instead. The name livermorium and the symbol Lv were adopted on May 23,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> 2012.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a> The name recognises the <a href="/facts/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory/WuXIbIKz">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a>, within the city of <a href="/facts/Livermore%2c_California/PKRFAQXw">Livermore, California</a>, US, which collaborated with JINR on the discovery. The city in turn is named after the American rancher <a href="/facts/Robert_Livermore/8TSmXrjS">Robert Livermore</a>, a naturalized Mexican citizen of English birth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a> The naming ceremony for flerovium and livermorium was held in Moscow on October 24, 2012.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a>

<h3>Other routes of synthesis</h3>
See also: <a href="/facts/Isotopes_of_livermorium/GVATCnsS">Isotopes of livermorium § Nucleosynthesis</a>
The synthesis of livermorium in fusion reactions using projectiles heavier than 48Ca has been explored in preparation for synthesis attempts of the yet-undiscovered <a href="/facts/Unbinilium/gUvSSHzd">element 120</a>, as such reactions would necessarily utilize heavier projectiles. In 2023, the reaction between 238U and 54Cr was studied at the JINR's Superheavy Element Factory in Dubna; one atom of the new isotope 288Lv was reported, though more detailed analysis has not yet been published.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a> Similarly, in 2024, a team at the <a href="/facts/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory/tvjPSwC9">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> reported the synthesis of two atoms of 290Lv in the reaction between <a href="/facts/Plutonium-244/XGtUVghF">244Pu</a> and 50Ti. This result was described as "truly groundbreaking" by <a href="/facts/RIKEN/dbVUF6zN">RIKEN</a> director Hiromitsu Haba, whose team plans to search for <a href="/facts/Ununennium/WnpMG7CP">element 119</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> The team at JINR studied the reaction between 242Pu and 50Ti in 2024 as a follow-up to the 238U+54Cr, obtaining additional decay data for 288Lv and its decay products and discovering the new isotope 289Lv.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a>

<h2 id="predicted-properties">Predicted properties</h2>
Other than nuclear properties, no properties of livermorium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> and the fact that it decays very quickly. Properties of livermorium remain unknown and only predictions are available.

<h3>Nuclear stability and isotopes</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Isotopes_of_livermorium/GVATCnsS">Isotopes of livermorium</a>

Livermorium is expected to be near an <a href="/facts/Island_of_stability/XuxQzqjL">island of stability</a> centered on <a href="/facts/Copernicium/EhgyBkg0">copernicium</a> (element 112) and <a href="/facts/Flerovium/Aa7uGMuG">flerovium</a> (element 114).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a> Due to the expected high <a href="/facts/Fission_barrier/Xt5xoTpB">fission barriers</a>, any nucleus within this island of stability exclusively decays by alpha decay and perhaps some electron capture and <a href="/facts/Beta_decay/vxTBlckp">beta decay</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a> While the known isotopes of livermorium do not actually have enough neutrons to be on the island of stability, they can be seen to approach the island, as the heavier isotopes are generally the longer-lived ones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a>
Superheavy elements are produced by <a href="/facts/Nuclear_fusion/hP0gLDqj">nuclear fusion</a>. These fusion reactions can be divided into "hot" and "cold" fusion,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a> depending on the excitation energy of the compound nucleus produced. In hot fusion reactions, very light, high-energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets (<a href="/facts/Actinide/kHC4lxJV">actinides</a>), giving rise to compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40–50 <a href="/facts/Electronvolt/YMT1fqX9">MeV</a>) that may either fission or evaporate several (3 to 5) neutrons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a> In cold fusion reactions (which use heavier projectiles, typically from the <a href="/facts/Period_4_element/BgDFfE26">fourth period</a>, and lighter targets, usually <a href="/facts/Lead/EYljasJN">lead</a> and <a href="/facts/Bismuth/75FLjkoX">bismuth</a>), the produced fused nuclei have a relatively low excitation energy (~10–20 MeV), which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions. As the fused nuclei cool to the <a href="/facts/Ground_state/ML7cfCug">ground state</a>, they require emission of only one or two neutrons. Hot fusion reactions tend to produce more neutron-rich products because the actinides have the highest neutron-to-proton ratios of any elements that can presently be made in macroscopic quantities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a>
Important information could be gained regarding the properties of superheavy nuclei by the synthesis of more livermorium isotopes, specifically those with a few neutrons more or less than the known ones – 286Lv, 287Lv, 294Lv, and 295Lv. This is possible because there are many reasonably long-lived <a href="/facts/Isotopes_of_curium/WnMh6VLE">isotopes of curium</a> that can be used to make a target.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a> The light isotopes can be made by fusing <a href="/facts/Curium-243/WnMh6VLE">curium-243</a> with calcium-48. They would undergo a chain of alpha decays, ending at <a href="/facts/Transactinide/9PjYvCc3">transactinide</a> isotopes that are too light to achieve by hot fusion and too heavy to be produced by cold fusion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> The same neutron-deficient isotopes are also reachable in reactions with projectiles heavier than 48Ca, which will be necessary to reach elements beyond atomic number 118 (or possibly <a href="/facts/Ununennium/WnpMG7CP">119</a>); this is how 288Lv and 289Lv were discovered.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a>
The synthesis of the heavy isotopes 294Lv and 295Lv could be accomplished by fusing the heavy curium isotope <a href="/facts/Curium-250/WnMh6VLE">curium-250</a> with calcium-48. The <a href="/facts/Cross_section_(physics)/lo014h2D">cross section</a> of this nuclear reaction would be about 1 <a href="/facts/Barn_(unit)/0yCEtKJ9">picobarn</a>, though it is not yet possible to produce 250Cm in the quantities needed for target manufacture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a> Alternatively, 294Lv could be produced via charged-particle evaporation in the 251Cf(48Ca,pn) reaction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> After a few alpha decays, these livermorium isotopes would reach nuclides at the <a href="/facts/Line_of_beta_stability/Qc1jTB6H">line of beta stability</a>. Additionally, <a href="/facts/Electron_capture/EIccoV1u">electron capture</a> may also become an important decay mode in this region, allowing affected nuclei to reach the middle of the island. For example, it is predicted that 295Lv would alpha decay to 291<a href="/facts/Flerovium/Aa7uGMuG">Fl</a>, which would undergo successive electron capture to 291Nh and then 291<a href="/facts/Copernicium/EhgyBkg0">Cn</a> which is expected to be in the middle of the island of stability and have a half-life of about 1200 years, affording the most likely hope of reaching the middle of the island using current technology. A drawback is that the decay properties of superheavy nuclei this close to the line of beta stability are largely unexplored.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a>
Other possibilities to synthesize nuclei on the island of stability include quasifission (partial fusion followed by fission) of a massive nucleus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> Such nuclei tend to fission, expelling doubly <a href="/facts/Magic_number_(physics)/v9PwXFzQ">magic</a> or nearly doubly magic fragments such as <a href="/facts/Calcium-40/YhuBa6LI">calcium-40</a>, <a href="/facts/Tin-132/C3yupbqu">tin-132</a>, <a href="/facts/Lead-208/V9JFUTRo">lead-208</a>, or <a href="/facts/Bismuth-209/Bxu7JrUs">bismuth-209</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> Recently it has been shown that the multi-nucleon transfer reactions in collisions of actinide nuclei (such as <a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">uranium</a> and <a href="/facts/Curium/LMyWXg8l">curium</a>) might be used to synthesize the neutron-rich superheavy nuclei located at the island of stability,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a> although formation of the lighter elements <a href="/facts/Nobelium/syRkloSw">nobelium</a> or <a href="/facts/Seaborgium/ejs0Ap6P">seaborgium</a> is more favored.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a> One last possibility to synthesize isotopes near the island is to use controlled <a href="/facts/Nuclear_explosion/BtpfgcUg">nuclear explosions</a> to create a <a href="/facts/Neutron_flux/nDE9Nlrx">neutron flux</a> high enough to bypass the gaps of instability at 258–260<a href="/facts/Fermium/Us3rnvG5">Fm</a> and at <a href="/facts/Mass_number/VyBbJ1oI">mass number</a> 275 (atomic numbers <a href="/facts/Rutherfordium/44LSnv9p">104</a> to <a href="/facts/Hassium/t0bgGzwt">108</a>), mimicking the <a href="/facts/R-process/wEDL01yc">r-process</a> in which the <a href="/facts/Actinide/kHC4lxJV">actinides</a> were first produced in nature and the gap of instability around <a href="/facts/Radon/0V9arWKl">radon</a> bypassed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a> Some such isotopes (especially 291Cn and 293Cn) may even have been synthesized in nature, but would have decayed away far too quickly (with half-lives of only thousands of years) and be produced in far too small quantities (about 10−12 the abundance of <a href="/facts/Lead/EYljasJN">lead</a>) to be detectable as <a href="/facts/Primordial_nuclide/lFAUqHDv">primordial nuclides</a> today outside <a href="/facts/Cosmic_ray/uxCVdTKd">cosmic rays</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a>

<h3>Physical and atomic</h3>
In the <a href="/facts/Periodic_table/umdGIfUb">periodic table</a>, livermorium is a member of group 16, the chalcogens. It appears below <a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">oxygen</a>, <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulfur</a>, <a href="/facts/Selenium/k975NApC">selenium</a>, <a href="/facts/Tellurium/v7QvfIvS">tellurium</a>, and polonium. Every previous chalcogen has six electrons in its valence shell, forming a <a href="/facts/Valence_electron/mXPA15VP">valence electron</a> configuration of ns2np4. In livermorium's case, the trend should be continued and the valence electron configuration is predicted to be 7s27p4;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a> therefore, livermorium will have some similarities to its lighter <a href="/facts/Congener_(chemistry)/8qy2rvGG">congeners</a>. Differences are likely to arise; a large contributing effect is the <a href="/facts/Spin%25E2%2580%2593orbit_interaction/Pv6maL1S">spin–orbit (SO) interaction</a>—the mutual interaction between the electrons' motion and <a href="/facts/Spin_(physics)/4Jvp7e8P">spin</a>. It is especially strong for the superheavy elements, because their electrons move much faster than in lighter atoms, at velocities comparable to the <a href="/facts/Speed_of_light/sKSQwdNx">speed of light</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a> In relation to livermorium atoms, it lowers the 7s and the 7p electron energy levels (stabilizing the corresponding electrons), but two of the 7p electron energy levels are stabilized more than the other four.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a> The stabilization of the 7s electrons is called the <a href="/facts/Inert_pair_effect/bqREzIAU">inert pair effect</a>, and the effect "tearing" the 7p subshell into the more stabilized and the less stabilized parts is called subshell splitting. Computation chemists see the split as a change of the second (<a href="/facts/Azimuthal_quantum_number/vHSIzbFC">azimuthal</a>) <a href="/facts/Quantum_number/AByP6F0y">quantum number</a> l from 1 to 1⁄2 and 3⁄2 for the more stabilized and less stabilized parts of the 7p subshell, respectively: the 7p1/2 subshell acts as a second inert pair, though not as inert as the 7s electrons, while the 7p3/2 subshell can easily participate in chemistry.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> For many theoretical purposes, the valence electron configuration may be represented to reflect the 7p subshell split as 7s27p21/27p23/2.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a>
Inert pair effects in livermorium should be even stronger than in polonium and hence the +2 <a href="/facts/Oxidation_state/W53W6s6V">oxidation state</a> becomes more stable than the +4 state, which would be stabilized only by the most <a href="/facts/Electronegative/H7Vq7Uah">electronegative</a> <a href="/facts/Ligand/6etB3qeW">ligands</a>; this is reflected in the expected <a href="/facts/Ionization_energy/lezUajfA">ionization energies</a> of livermorium, where there are large gaps between the second and third ionization energies (corresponding to the breaching of the unreactive 7p1/2 shell) and fourth and fifth ionization energies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a> Indeed, the 7s electrons are expected to be so inert that the +6 state will not be attainable.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a> The <a href="/facts/Melting_point/MY0w0h0k">melting</a> and <a href="/facts/Boiling_point/E2BK9QoS">boiling points</a> of livermorium are expected to continue the trends down the chalcogens; thus livermorium should melt at a higher temperature than polonium, but boil at a lower temperature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a> It should also be <a href="/facts/Density/92p6hh9I">denser</a> than polonium (α-Lv: 12.9 g/cm3; α-Po: 9.2 g/cm3); like polonium it should also form an α and a β allotrope.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a> The electron of a <a href="/facts/Hydrogen-like_atom/0rmuVpjT">hydrogen-like</a> livermorium atom (oxidized so that it only has one electron, Lv115+) is expected to move so fast that it has a mass 1.86 times that of a stationary electron, due to <a href="/facts/Relativistic_quantum_chemistry/8A1se1CS">relativistic effects</a>. For comparison, the figures for hydrogen-like polonium and tellurium are expected to be 1.26 and 1.080 respectively.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a>

<h3>Chemical</h3>
Livermorium is projected to be the fourth member of the 7p series of <a href="/facts/Chemical_element/0jducgWD">chemical elements</a> and the heaviest member of group 16 in the periodic table, below polonium. While it is the least theoretically studied of the 7p elements, its chemistry is expected to be quite similar to that of polonium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a> The group oxidation state of +6 is known for all the chalcogens apart from oxygen which cannot <a href="/facts/Hypervalent_molecule/goPjlm9W">expand its octet</a> and is one of the strongest <a href="/facts/Redox/Pyd5RVcj">oxidizing agents</a> among the chemical elements. Oxygen is thus limited to a maximum +2 state, exhibited in the fluoride <a href="/facts/Oxygen_difluoride/7WF0HL33">OF2</a>. The +4 state is known for <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulfur</a>, <a href="/facts/Selenium/k975NApC">selenium</a>, <a href="/facts/Tellurium/v7QvfIvS">tellurium</a>, and polonium, undergoing a shift in stability from reducing for sulfur(IV) and selenium(IV) through being the most stable state for tellurium(IV) to being oxidizing in polonium(IV). This suggests a decreasing stability for the higher oxidation states as the group is descended due to the increasing importance of relativistic effects, especially the inert pair effect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a> The most stable oxidation state of livermorium should thus be +2, with a rather unstable +4 state. The +2 state should be about as easy to form as it is for <a href="/facts/Beryllium/dv295voP">beryllium</a> and <a href="/facts/Magnesium/XyIhd2FG">magnesium</a>, and the +4 state should only be achieved with strongly electronegative ligands, such as in livermorium(IV) fluoride (LvF4).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a> The +6 state should not exist at all due to the very strong stabilization of the 7s electrons, making the valence core of livermorium only four electrons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a> The lighter chalcogens are also known to form a −2 state as <a href="/facts/Oxide/DXtoVe1C">oxide</a>, <a href="/facts/Sulfide/d8YMjLeu">sulfide</a>, <a href="/facts/Selenide/vA9Ls4xH">selenide</a>, <a href="/facts/Telluride_(chemistry)/r8gVazKR">telluride</a>, and <a href="/facts/Polonide/nT9RtKx5">polonide</a>; due to the destabilization of livermorium's 7p3/2 subshell, the −2 state should be very unstable for livermorium, whose chemistry should be essentially purely cationic,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a> though the larger subshell and spinor energy splittings of livermorium as compared to polonium should make Lv2− slightly less unstable than expected.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a>
Livermorium hydride (LvH2) would be the heaviest <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_chalcogenide/pNCrhmwX">chalcogen hydride</a> and the heaviest homolog of <a href="/facts/Water/0lkXnJPK">water</a> (the lighter ones are <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_sulfide/UbCqjMMk">H2S</a>, <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_selenide/l2Pn2wJo">H2Se</a>, <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_telluride/o2AH0udB">H2Te</a>, and <a href="/facts/Polonium_hydride/P2wAul15">PoH2</a>). Polane (polonium hydride) is a more <a href="/facts/Covalent/EzMLf3Pz">covalent</a> compound than most metal hydrides because polonium straddles the border between <a href="/facts/Metal/PT8hNX6R">metal</a> and <a href="/facts/Metalloid/uMFVXuTq">metalloid</a> and has some nonmetallic properties: it is intermediate between a <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_halide/avUQ6Nwy">hydrogen halide</a> like <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_chloride/7Wzkhomd">hydrogen chloride</a> (HCl) and a <a href="/facts/Metal_hydride/v2rlBGMg">metal hydride</a> like <a href="/facts/Stannane/aWHjxRe2">stannane</a> (<a href="/facts/Tin/obW9mqc3">Sn</a>H4). Livermorane should continue this trend: it should be a hydride rather than a livermoride, but still a covalent <a href="/facts/Molecule/N9ljSfFq">molecular</a> compound.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a> Spin-orbit interactions are expected to make the Lv–H bond longer than expected from <a href="/facts/Periodic_trends/dI0mkSju">periodic trends</a> alone, and make the H–Lv–H bond angle larger than expected: this is theorized to be because the unoccupied 8s orbitals are relatively low in energy and can <a href="/facts/Orbital_hybridization/Fl7sz8Jm">hybridize</a> with the valence 7p orbitals of livermorium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a> This phenomenon, dubbed "supervalent hybridization",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> has some analogues in non-relativistic regions in the periodic table; for example, molecular <a href="/facts/Calcium_difluoride/fCKHAvp1">calcium difluoride</a> has 4s and 3d involvement from the <a href="/facts/Calcium/hf252CC0">calcium</a> atom.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a> The heavier livermorium di<a href="/facts/Halide/ujYu8kGD">halides</a> are predicted to be <a href="/facts/Linear_molecular_geometry/vUv6YEjE">linear</a>, but the lighter ones are predicted to be <a href="/facts/Bent_molecular_geometry/Lf7NzGe2">bent</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a>

<h2 id="experimental-chemistry">Experimental chemistry</h2>
Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of livermorium has not yet been established.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> In 2011, experiments were conducted to create <a href="/facts/Nihonium/sb09p5dv">nihonium</a>, <a href="/facts/Flerovium/Aa7uGMuG">flerovium</a>, and <a href="/facts/Moscovium/QhSEr0H5">moscovium</a> isotopes in the reactions between calcium-48 projectiles and targets of americium-243 and <a href="/facts/Plutonium-244/XGtUVghF">plutonium-244</a>. The targets included <a href="/facts/Lead/EYljasJN">lead</a> and <a href="/facts/Bismuth/75FLjkoX">bismuth</a> impurities and hence some isotopes of bismuth and <a href="/facts/Polonium/G4rzsyjP">polonium</a> were generated in nucleon transfer reactions. This, while an unforeseen complication, could give information that would help in the future chemical investigation of the heavier homologs of bismuth and polonium, which are respectively moscovium and livermorium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a> The produced nuclides <a href="/facts/Bismuth-213/DrbTkEzW">bismuth-213</a> and <a href="/facts/Polonium-212m/bIdUTjCm">polonium-212m</a> were transported as the hydrides <a href="/facts/Bismuthine/msE9Cj5C">213BiH3</a> and <a href="/facts/Polonium_hydride/P2wAul15">212mPoH2</a> at 850 °C through a quartz wool filter unit held with <a href="/facts/Tantalum/VwaxMm33">tantalum</a>, showing that these hydrides were surprisingly thermally stable, although their heavier congeners McH3 and LvH2 would be expected to be less thermally stable from simple extrapolation of <a href="/facts/Periodic_trends/dI0mkSju">periodic trends</a> in the p-block.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a> Further calculations on the stability and electronic structure of BiH3, McH3, PoH2, and LvH2 are needed before chemical investigations take place. Moscovium and livermorium are expected to be <a href="/facts/Volatility_(chemistry)/90r3ep6w">volatile</a> enough as pure elements for them to be chemically investigated in the near future, a property livermorium would then share with its lighter congener polonium, though the short half-lives of all presently known livermorium isotopes means that the element is still inaccessible to experimental chemistry.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a>

<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2>
<ul><li>Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; et al. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties". Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ChPhC..41c0001A">2017ChPhC..41c0001A</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1674-1137%2F41%2F3%2F030001">10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001</a>.</li>
<li>Beiser, A. (2003). Concepts of modern physics (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-07-244848-1. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48965418">48965418</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Darleane_C._Hoffman/2gX65TCu">Hoffman, D. C.</a>; <a href="/facts/Albert_Ghiorso/jP5gHCwp">Ghiorso, A.</a>; Seaborg, G. T. (2000). The Transuranium People: The Inside Story. <a href="/facts/World_Scientific/qJPTP0Yk">World Scientific</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-78-326244-1.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Helge_Kragh/j8RzFcow">Kragh, H.</a> (2018). From Transuranic to Superheavy Elements: A Story of Dispute and Creation. <a href="/facts/Springer_Science%252BBusiness_Media/nAesf6nT">Springer</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-319-75813-8.</li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Livermorium.

<ul><li><a href="http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/116.htm">Livermorium</a> at <a href="/facts/The_Periodic_Table_of_Videos/vC5kbN0M">The Periodic Table of Videos</a> (University of Nottingham)</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081205080201/http://www.cerncourier.com/main/article/41/8/17">CERN Courier – Second postcard from the island of stability</a></li>
<li><a href="http://webelements.com/livermorium/">Livermorium at WebElements.com</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"Element 114 is Named Flerovium and Element 116 is Named Livermorium". IUPAC. 30 May 2012. Archived from the original on 2 June 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120602010328/https://iupac.org/news/news-detail/article/element-114-is-named-flerovium-and-element-116-is-named-livermorium.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120602010328/https://iupac.org/news/news-detail/article/element-114-is-named-flerovium-and-element-116-is-named-livermorium.html</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">In nuclear physics, an element is called heavy if its atomic number is high; lead (element 82) is one example of such a heavy element. The term "superheavy elements" typically refers to elements with atomic number greater than 103 (although there are other definitions, such as atomic number greater than 100[8] or 112;[9] sometimes, the term is presented an equivalent to the term "transactinide", which puts an upper limit before the beginning of the hypothetical superactinide series).[10] Terms "heavy isotopes" (of a given element) and "heavy nuclei" mean what could be understood in the common language—isotopes of high mass (for the given element) and nuclei of high mass, respectively. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" target="_blank">/wiki/Nuclear_physics</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">In 2009, a team at the JINR led by Oganessian published results of their attempt to create hassium in a symmetric 136Xe + 136Xe reaction. They failed to observe a single atom in such a reaction, putting the upper limit on the cross section, the measure of probability of a nuclear reaction, as 2.5 pb.[11] In comparison, the reaction that resulted in hassium discovery, 208Pb + 58Fe, had a cross section of ~20 pb (more specifically, 19+19-11 pb), as estimated by the discoverers.[12] <a href="/wiki/Picobarn" target="_blank">/wiki/Picobarn</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Subramanian, S. (28 August 2019). "Making New Elements Doesn't Pay. Just Ask This Berkeley Scientist". Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved 2020-01-18. <a href="/wiki/Samanth_Subramanian" target="_blank">/wiki/Samanth_Subramanian</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Hinde, D. (2017). "Something new and superheavy at the periodic table". The Conversation. Retrieved 2020-01-30. <a href="https://theconversation.com/something-new-and-superheavy-at-the-periodic-table-26286" target="_blank">https://theconversation.com/something-new-and-superheavy-at-the-periodic-table-26286</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">The amount of energy applied to the beam particle to accelerate it can also influence the value of cross section. For example, in the 2814Si + 10n → 2813Al + 11p reaction, cross section changes smoothly from 370 mb at 12.3 MeV to 160 mb at 18.3 MeV, with a broad peak at 13.5 MeV with the maximum value of 380 mb.[16] <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">"Nuclear Reactions" (PDF). pp. 7–8. Retrieved 2020-01-27. Published as Loveland, W. D.; Morrissey, D. J.; Seaborg, G. T. (2005). "Nuclear Reactions". Modern Nuclear Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 249–297. doi:10.1002/0471768626.ch10. ISBN 978-0-471-76862-3. <a href="978-0-471-76862-3" target="_blank">978-0-471-76862-3</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Krása, A. (2010). "Neutron Sources for ADS" (PDF). Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Physical Engineering. Czech Technical University in Prague: 4–8. S2CID 28796927 – via Wayback Machine. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918062244/http://ojs.ujf.cas.cz/~krasa/ZNTT/SpallationReactions-text.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20170918062244/http://ojs.ujf.cas.cz/~krasa/ZNTT/SpallationReactions-text.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Krása, A. (2010). "Neutron Sources for ADS" (PDF). Faculty of Nuclear Sciences and Physical Engineering. Czech Technical University in Prague: 4–8. S2CID 28796927 – via Wayback Machine. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918062244/http://ojs.ujf.cas.cz/~krasa/ZNTT/SpallationReactions-text.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20170918062244/http://ojs.ujf.cas.cz/~krasa/ZNTT/SpallationReactions-text.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Wapstra, A. H. (1991). "Criteria that must be satisfied for the discovery of a new chemical element to be recognized" (PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 63 (6): 883. doi:10.1351/pac199163060879. ISSN 1365-3075. S2CID 95737691. <a href="/wiki/Aaldert_Wapstra" target="_blank">/wiki/Aaldert_Wapstra</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">This figure also marks the generally accepted upper limit for lifetime of a compound nucleus.[21] <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Chemistry World (2016). "How to Make Superheavy Elements and Finish the Periodic Table [Video]". Scientific American. Retrieved 2020-01-27. <a href="/wiki/Chemistry_World" target="_blank">/wiki/Chemistry_World</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">This separation is based on that the resulting nuclei move past the target more slowly then the unreacted beam nuclei. The separator contains electric and magnetic fields whose effects on a moving particle cancel out for a specific velocity of a particle.[23] Such separation can also be aided by a time-of-flight measurement and a recoil energy measurement; a combination of the two may allow to estimate the mass of a nucleus.[24] <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Chemistry World (2016). "How to Make Superheavy Elements and Finish the Periodic Table [Video]". Scientific American. Retrieved 2020-01-27. <a href="/wiki/Chemistry_World" target="_blank">/wiki/Chemistry_World</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Zagrebaev, Karpov & Greiner 2013, p. 3. - Zagrebaev, Valeriy; Karpov, Alexander; Greiner, Walter (2013). "Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?" (PDF). Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Vol. 420. IOP Science. pp. 1–15. Retrieved 20 August 2013. <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf" target="_blank">http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Chemistry World (2016). "How to Make Superheavy Elements and Finish the Periodic Table [Video]". Scientific American. Retrieved 2020-01-27. <a href="/wiki/Chemistry_World" target="_blank">/wiki/Chemistry_World</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Beiser 2003, p. 432. - Beiser, A. (2003). Concepts of modern physics (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-244848-1. OCLC 48965418. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48965418" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48965418</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Pauli, N. (2019). "Alpha decay" (PDF). Introductory Nuclear, Atomic and Molecular Physics (Nuclear Physics Part). Université libre de Bruxelles. Retrieved 2020-02-16. <a href="http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_5.pdf" target="_blank">http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_5.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Pauli, N. (2019). "Nuclear fission" (PDF). Introductory Nuclear, Atomic and Molecular Physics (Nuclear Physics Part). Université libre de Bruxelles. Retrieved 2020-02-16. <a href="http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_8.pdf" target="_blank">http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_8.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Staszczak, A.; Baran, A.; Nazarewicz, W. (2013). "Spontaneous fission modes and lifetimes of superheavy elements in the nuclear density functional theory". Physical Review C. 87 (2): 024320–1. arXiv:1208.1215. Bibcode:2013PhRvC..87b4320S. doi:10.1103/physrevc.87.024320. ISSN 0556-2813. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrevc.87.024320" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrevc.87.024320</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Audi et al. 2017, pp. 030001-129–030001-138. - Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; et al. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties". Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ChPhC..41c0001A" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ChPhC..41c0001A</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Not all decay modes are caused by electrostatic repulsion. For example, beta decay is caused by the weak interaction.[31] <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" target="_blank">/wiki/Beta_decay</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Beiser 2003, p. 433. - Beiser, A. (2003). Concepts of modern physics (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-244848-1. OCLC 48965418. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48965418" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48965418</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Audi et al. 2017, p. 030001-125. - Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; et al. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties". Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ChPhC..41c0001A" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ChPhC..41c0001A</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Pauli, N. (2019). "Alpha decay" (PDF). Introductory Nuclear, Atomic and Molecular Physics (Nuclear Physics Part). Université libre de Bruxelles. Retrieved 2020-02-16. <a href="http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_5.pdf" target="_blank">http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_5.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Pauli, N. (2019). "Nuclear fission" (PDF). Introductory Nuclear, Atomic and Molecular Physics (Nuclear Physics Part). Université libre de Bruxelles. Retrieved 2020-02-16. <a href="http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_8.pdf" target="_blank">http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_8.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Beiser 2003, p. 432–433. - Beiser, A. (2003). Concepts of modern physics (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-244848-1. OCLC 48965418. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48965418" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48965418</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Pauli, N. (2019). "Nuclear fission" (PDF). Introductory Nuclear, Atomic and Molecular Physics (Nuclear Physics Part). Université libre de Bruxelles. Retrieved 2020-02-16. <a href="http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_8.pdf" target="_blank">http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_8.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Oganessian, Yu. (2012). "Nuclei in the "Island of Stability" of Superheavy Elements". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 337 (1): 012005-1 – 012005-6. Bibcode:2012JPhCS.337a2005O. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/337/1/012005. ISSN 1742-6596. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F337%2F1%2F012005" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F337%2F1%2F012005</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Moller, P.; Nix, J. R. (1994). Fission properties of the heaviest elements (PDF). Dai 2 Kai Hadoron Tataikei no Simulation Symposium, Tokai-mura, Ibaraki, Japan. University of North Texas. Retrieved 2020-02-16. <a href="https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc674703/m2/1/high_res_d/32502.pdf" target="_blank">https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc674703/m2/1/high_res_d/32502.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Pauli, N. (2019). "Nuclear fission" (PDF). Introductory Nuclear, Atomic and Molecular Physics (Nuclear Physics Part). Université libre de Bruxelles. Retrieved 2020-02-16. <a href="http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_8.pdf" target="_blank">http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_8.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Oganessian, Yu. Ts. (2004). "Superheavy elements". Physics World. 17 (7): 25–29. doi:10.1088/2058-7058/17/7/31. Retrieved 2020-02-16. <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/superheavy-elements/" target="_blank">https://physicsworld.com/a/superheavy-elements/</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Pauli, N. (2019). "Nuclear fission" (PDF). Introductory Nuclear, Atomic and Molecular Physics (Nuclear Physics Part). Université libre de Bruxelles. Retrieved 2020-02-16. <a href="http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_8.pdf" target="_blank">http://metronu.ulb.ac.be/npauly/Pauly/physnu/chapter_8.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Oganessian, Yu. Ts. (2004). "Superheavy elements". Physics World. 17 (7): 25–29. doi:10.1088/2058-7058/17/7/31. Retrieved 2020-02-16. <a href="https://physicsworld.com/a/superheavy-elements/" target="_blank">https://physicsworld.com/a/superheavy-elements/</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Schädel, M. (2015). "Chemistry of the superheavy elements". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 373 (2037): 20140191. Bibcode:2015RSPTA.37340191S. doi:10.1098/rsta.2014.0191. ISSN 1364-503X. PMID 25666065. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2014.0191" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.2014.0191</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Hulet, E. K. (1989). Biomodal spontaneous fission. 50th Anniversary of Nuclear Fission, Leningrad, USSR. Bibcode:1989nufi.rept...16H. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Oganessian, Yu. (2012). "Nuclei in the "Island of Stability" of Superheavy Elements". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 337 (1): 012005-1 – 012005-6. Bibcode:2012JPhCS.337a2005O. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/337/1/012005. ISSN 1742-6596. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F337%2F1%2F012005" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F337%2F1%2F012005</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">It was already known by the 1960s that ground states of nuclei differed in energy and shape as well as that certain magic numbers of nucleons corresponded to greater stability of a nucleus. However, it was assumed that there was no nuclear structure in superheavy nuclei as they were too deformed to form one.[36] <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Since mass of a nucleus is not measured directly but is rather calculated from that of another nucleus, such measurement is called indirect. Direct measurements are also possible, but for the most part they have remained unavailable for superheavy nuclei.[41] The first direct measurement of mass of a superheavy nucleus was reported in 2018 at LBNL.[42] Mass was determined from the location of a nucleus after the transfer (the location helps determine its trajectory, which is linked to the mass-to-charge ratio of the nucleus, since the transfer was done in presence of a magnet).[43] <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Chemistry World (2016). "How to Make Superheavy Elements and Finish the Periodic Table [Video]". Scientific American. Retrieved 2020-01-27. <a href="/wiki/Chemistry_World" target="_blank">/wiki/Chemistry_World</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">If the decay occurred in a vacuum, then since total momentum of an isolated system before and after the decay must be preserved, the daughter nucleus would also receive a small velocity. The ratio of the two velocities, and accordingly the ratio of the kinetic energies, would thus be inverse to the ratio of the two masses. The decay energy equals the sum of the known kinetic energy of the alpha particle and that of the daughter nucleus (an exact fraction of the former).[32] The calculations hold for an experiment as well, but the difference is that the nucleus does not move after the decay because it is tied to the detector. <a href="/wiki/Momentum#Conservation" target="_blank">/wiki/Momentum#Conservation</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Spontaneous fission was discovered by Soviet physicist Georgy Flerov,[44] a leading scientist at JINR, and thus it was a "hobbyhorse" for the facility.[45] In contrast, the LBL scientists believed fission information was not sufficient for a claim of synthesis of an element. They believed spontaneous fission had not been studied enough to use it for identification of a new element, since there was a difficulty of establishing that a compound nucleus had only ejected neutrons and not charged particles like protons or alpha particles.[21] They thus preferred to link new isotopes to the already known ones by successive alpha decays.[44] <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Flerov" target="_blank">/wiki/Georgy_Flerov</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">For instance, element 102 was mistakenly identified in 1957 at the Nobel Institute of Physics in Stockholm, Stockholm County, Sweden.[46] There were no earlier definitive claims of creation of this element, and the element was assigned a name by its Swedish, American, and British discoverers, nobelium. It was later shown that the identification was incorrect.[47] The following year, RL was unable to reproduce the Swedish results and announced instead their synthesis of the element; that claim was also disproved later.[47] JINR insisted that they were the first to create the element and suggested a name of their own for the new element, joliotium;[48] the Soviet name was also not accepted (JINR later referred to the naming of the element 102 as "hasty").[49] This name was proposed to IUPAC in a written response to their ruling on priority of discovery claims of elements, signed 29 September 1992.[49] The name "nobelium" remained unchanged on account of its widespread usage.[50] <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" target="_blank">/wiki/Stockholm</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Hulet, E. K.; Lougheed, R.; Wild, J.; Landrum, J.; Stevenson, P.; Ghiorso, A.; Nitschke, J.; Otto, R.; et al. (1977). "Search for Superheavy Elements in the Bombardment of 248Cm with48Ca". Physical Review Letters. 39 (7): 385–389. Bibcode:1977PhRvL..39..385H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.39.385. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Armbruster, P.; Agarwal, YK; Brüchle, W; Brügger, M; Dufour, JP; Gaggeler, H; Hessberger, FP; Hofmann, S; et al. (1985). "Attempts to Produce Superheavy Elements by Fusion of 48Ca with 248Cm in the Bombarding Energy Range of 4.5–5.2 MeV/u". Physical Review Letters. 54 (5): 406–409. Bibcode:1985PhRvL..54..406A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.54.406. PMID 10031507. <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1233843" target="_blank">https://zenodo.org/record/1233843</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Hofmann, Sigurd (1 December 2016). The discovery of elements 107 to 112 (PDF). Nobel Symposium NS160 – Chemistry and Physics of Heavy and Superheavy Elements. EPJ Web of Conferences. Vol. 131. p. 06001. doi:10.1051/epjconf/201613106001. <a href="https://www.epj-conferences.org/articles/epjconf/pdf/2016/26/epjconf-NS160-06001.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.epj-conferences.org/articles/epjconf/pdf/2016/26/epjconf-NS160-06001.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">Smolanczuk, R. (1999). "Production mechanism of superheavy nuclei in cold fusion reactions". Physical Review C. 59 (5): 2634–2639. Bibcode:1999PhRvC..59.2634S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.59.2634. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Smolanczuk, R. (1999). "Production mechanism of superheavy nuclei in cold fusion reactions". Physical Review C. 59 (5): 2634–2639. Bibcode:1999PhRvC..59.2634S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.59.2634. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Ninov, Viktor; Gregorich, K.; Loveland, W.; Ghiorso, A.; Hoffman, D.; Lee, D.; Nitsche, H.; Swiatecki, W.; Kirbach, U.; Laue, C.; et al. (1999). "Observation of Superheavy Nuclei Produced in the Reaction of 86Kr with 208Pb". Physical Review Letters. 83 (6): 1104–1107. Bibcode:1999PhRvL..83.1104N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.1104. (Retracted, see doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.89.039901) <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1233919" target="_blank">https://zenodo.org/record/1233919</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Service, R. F. (1999). "Berkeley Crew Bags Element 118". Science. 284 (5421): 1751. doi:10.1126/science.284.5421.1751. S2CID 220094113. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Public Affairs Department (2001-07-21). "Results of element 118 experiment retracted". Berkeley Lab. Archived from the original on 2008-01-29. Retrieved 2008-01-18. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080129191344/http://enews.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/118-retraction.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20080129191344/http://enews.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/118-retraction.html</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Dalton, R. (2002). "Misconduct: The stars who fell to Earth". Nature. 420 (6917): 728–729. Bibcode:2002Natur.420..728D. doi:10.1038/420728a. PMID 12490902. S2CID 4398009. <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" target="_blank">/wiki/Nature_(journal)</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Element 118 disappears two years after it was discovered. Physicsworld.com (August 2, 2001). Retrieved on 2012-04-02. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071012075515/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2629" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20071012075515/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2629</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:55">Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov; Lobanov; Abdullin; Polyakov; Shirokovsky; Tsyganov; Gulbekian; Bogomolov; Gikal; Mezentsev; Iliev; Subbotin; Sukhov; Ivanov; Buklanov; Subotic; Itkis; Moody; Wild; Stoyer; Stoyer; Lougheed; Laue; Karelin; Tatarinov (2000). "Observation of the decay of 292116". Physical Review C. 63 (1): 011301. Bibcode:2000PhRvC..63a1301O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.63.011301. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov; Lobanov; Abdullin; Polyakov; Shirokovsky; Tsyganov; Gulbekian; Bogomolov; Gikal; Mezentsev; Iliev; Subbotin; Sukhov; Ivanov; Buklanov; Subotic; Itkis; Moody; Wild; Stoyer; Stoyer; Lougheed; Laue; Karelin; Tatarinov (2000). "Observation of the decay of 292116". Physical Review C. 63 (1): 011301. Bibcode:2000PhRvC..63a1301O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.63.011301. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V.; Lobanov, Yu.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Yu.; Gulbekian, G.; Bogomolov, S.; Gikal, B. N.; et al. (2004). "Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of elements 112, 114, and 116 produced in the fusion reactions 233,238U, 242Pu, and 248Cm+48Ca" (PDF). Physical Review C. 70 (6): 064609. Bibcode:2004PhRvC..70f4609O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.70.064609. <a href="http://www1.jinr.ru/Preprints/2004/160(E7-2004-160).pdf" target="_blank">http://www1.jinr.ru/Preprints/2004/160(E7-2004-160).pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">"Confirmed results of the 248Cm(48Ca,4n)292116 experiment" Archived 2016-01-30 at the Wayback Machine, Patin et al., LLNL report (2003). Retrieved 2008-03-03 <a href="https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/302186.pdf" target="_blank">https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/302186.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">"Confirmed results of the 248Cm(48Ca,4n)292116 experiment" Archived 2016-01-30 at the Wayback Machine, Patin et al., LLNL report (2003). Retrieved 2008-03-03 <a href="https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/302186.pdf" target="_blank">https://e-reports-ext.llnl.gov/pdf/302186.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov; Lobanov; Abdullin; Polyakov; Shirokovsky; Tsyganov; Gulbekian; Bogomolov; Gikal; Mezentsev; Iliev; Subbotin; Sukhov; Ivanov; Buklanov; Subotic; Itkis; Moody; Wild; Stoyer; Stoyer; Lougheed; Laue; Karelin; Tatarinov (2000). "Observation of the decay of 292116". Physical Review C. 63 (1): 011301. Bibcode:2000PhRvC..63a1301O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.63.011301. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Lobanov, Yu.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Yu.; Gulbekian, G.; Bogomolov, S.; Gikal, B.; Mezentsev, A.; Iliev, S.; Subbotin, V.; Sukhov, A.; Voinov, A.; Buklanov, G.; Subotic, K.; Zagrebaev, V.; Itkis, M.; Patin, J.; Moody, K.; Wild, J.; Stoyer, M.; Stoyer, N.; Shaughnessy, D.; Kenneally, J.; Wilk, P.; Lougheed, R.; Il'Kaev, R.; Vesnovskii, S. (2004). "Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of elements 112, 114, and 116 produced in the fusion reactions 233,238U, 242Pu, and 248Cm + 48Ca" (PDF). Physical Review C. 70 (6): 064609. Bibcode:2004PhRvC..70f4609O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.70.064609. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 28, 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080528130343/http://www.jinr.ru/publish/Preprints/2004/160%28E7-2004-160%29.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20080528130343/http://www.jinr.ru/publish/Preprints/2004/160%28E7-2004-160%29.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov; Lobanov; Abdullin; Polyakov; Shirokovsky; Tsyganov; Gulbekian; Bogomolov; Gikal; Mezentsev; Iliev; Subbotin; Sukhov; Ivanov; Buklanov; Subotic; Itkis; Moody; Wild; Stoyer; Stoyer; Lougheed; Laue; Karelin; Tatarinov (2000). "Observation of the decay of 292116". Physical Review C. 63 (1): 011301. Bibcode:2000PhRvC..63a1301O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.63.011301. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Lobanov, Yu.; Abdullin, F.; Polyakov, A.; Shirokovsky, I.; Tsyganov, Yu.; Gulbekian, G.; Bogomolov, S.; Gikal, B.; Mezentsev, A.; Iliev, S.; Subbotin, V.; Sukhov, A.; Voinov, A.; Buklanov, G.; Subotic, K.; Zagrebaev, V.; Itkis, M.; Patin, J.; Moody, K.; Wild, J.; Stoyer, M.; Stoyer, N.; Shaughnessy, D.; Kenneally, J.; Wilk, P.; Lougheed, R.; Il'Kaev, R.; Vesnovskii, S. (2004). "Measurements of cross sections and decay properties of the isotopes of elements 112, 114, and 116 produced in the fusion reactions 233,238U, 242Pu, and 248Cm + 48Ca" (PDF). Physical Review C. 70 (6): 064609. Bibcode:2004PhRvC..70f4609O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.70.064609. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 28, 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080528130343/http://www.jinr.ru/publish/Preprints/2004/160%28E7-2004-160%29.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20080528130343/http://www.jinr.ru/publish/Preprints/2004/160%28E7-2004-160%29.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:79">Barber, R. C.; Karol, P. J.; Nakahara, H.; Vardaci, E.; Vogt, E. W. (2011). "Discovery of the elements with atomic numbers greater than or equal to 113 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 83 (7): 1485. doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-10-05-01. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2FPAC-REP-10-05-01" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1351%2FPAC-REP-10-05-01</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">"Russian Physicists Will Suggest to Name Element 116 Moscovium". rian.ru. 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-08.: Mikhail Itkis, the vice-director of JINR stated: "We would like to name element 114 after Georgy Flerov – flerovium, and another one [element 116] – moscovium, not after Moscow, but after Moscow Oblast". <a href="http://www.rian.ru/science/20110326/358081075.html" target="_blank">http://www.rian.ru/science/20110326/358081075.html</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:82">"Element 114 is Named Flerovium and Element 116 is Named Livermorium". IUPAC. 30 May 2012. Archived from the original on 2 June 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120602010328/https://iupac.org/news/news-detail/article/element-114-is-named-flerovium-and-element-116-is-named-livermorium.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120602010328/https://iupac.org/news/news-detail/article/element-114-is-named-flerovium-and-element-116-is-named-livermorium.html</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:84">"Element 114 is Named Flerovium and Element 116 is Named Livermorium". IUPAC. 30 May 2012. Archived from the original on 2 June 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120602010328/https://iupac.org/news/news-detail/article/element-114-is-named-flerovium-and-element-116-is-named-livermorium.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120602010328/https://iupac.org/news/news-detail/article/element-114-is-named-flerovium-and-element-116-is-named-livermorium.html</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:90">Ibadullayev, Dastan (2024). "Synthesis and study of the decay properties of isotopes of superheavy element Lv in Reactions 238U + 54Cr and 242Pu + 50Ti". jinr.ru. Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. Retrieved 2 November 2024. <a href="https://indico.jinr.ru/event/4343/contributions/28663/attachments/20748/36083/U%20+%20Cr%20AYSS%202024.pptx" target="_blank">https://indico.jinr.ru/event/4343/contributions/28663/attachments/20748/36083/U%20+%20Cr%20AYSS%202024.pptx</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Subramanian, S. (2019-08-28). "Making New Elements Doesn't Pay. Just Ask This Berkeley Scientist". Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved 2020-01-18. <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2019-08-28/making-new-elements-doesn-t-pay-just-ask-this-berkeley-scientist" target="_blank">https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2019-08-28/making-new-elements-doesn-t-pay-just-ask-this-berkeley-scientist</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">Zagrebaev, Valeriy; Karpov, Alexander; Greiner, Walter (2013). "Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?" (PDF). Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Vol. 420. IOP Science. pp. 1–15. Retrieved 20 August 2013. <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf" target="_blank">http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">Considine, Glenn D.; Kulik, Peter H. (2002). Van Nostrand's scientific encyclopedia (9th ed.). Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-33230-5. OCLC 223349096. <a href="978-0-471-33230-5" target="_blank">978-0-471-33230-5</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Fricke, Burkhard (1975). "Superheavy elements: a prediction of their chemical and physical properties". Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry. Structure and Bonding. 21: 89–144. doi:10.1007/BFb0116498. ISBN 978-3-540-07109-9. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
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<li id="fn:95">Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov; Lobanov; Abdullin; Polyakov; Shirokovsky; Tsyganov; Gulbekian; Bogomolov; Gikal; Mezentsev; Iliev; Subbotin; Sukhov; Ivanov; Buklanov; Subotic; Itkis; Moody; Wild; Stoyer; Stoyer; Lougheed; Laue; Karelin; Tatarinov (2000). "Observation of the decay of 292116". Physical Review C. 63 (1): 011301. Bibcode:2000PhRvC..63a1301O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.63.011301. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Barber, R. C.; Karol, P. J.; Nakahara, H.; Vardaci, E.; Vogt, E. W. (2011). "Discovery of the elements with atomic numbers greater than or equal to 113 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 83 (7): 1485. doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-10-05-01. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1351%2FPAC-REP-10-05-01" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1351%2FPAC-REP-10-05-01</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Despite the name, "cold fusion" in the context of superheavy element synthesis is a distinct concept from the idea that nuclear fusion can be achieved in room temperature conditions (see cold fusion).[87] <a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion" target="_blank">/wiki/Cold_fusion</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Barber, Robert C.; Gäggeler, Heinz W.; Karol, Paul J.; Nakahara, Hiromichi; Vardaci, Emanuele; Vogt, Erich (2009). "Discovery of the element with atomic number 112 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 81 (7): 1331. doi:10.1351/PAC-REP-08-03-05. S2CID 95703833. <a href="http://doc.rero.ch/record/297412/files/pac-rep-08-03-05.pdf" target="_blank">http://doc.rero.ch/record/297412/files/pac-rep-08-03-05.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">Armbruster, Peter & Münzenberg, Gottfried (1989). "Creating superheavy elements". Scientific American. 34: 36–42. <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">Zagrebaev, Valeriy; Karpov, Alexander; Greiner, Walter (2013). "Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?" (PDF). Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Vol. 420. IOP Science. pp. 1–15. Retrieved 20 August 2013. <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf" target="_blank">http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">Zagrebaev, Valeriy; Karpov, Alexander; Greiner, Walter (2013). "Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?" (PDF). Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Vol. 420. IOP Science. pp. 1–15. Retrieved 20 August 2013. <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf" target="_blank">http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">Ibadullayev, Dastan (2024). "Synthesis and study of the decay properties of isotopes of superheavy element Lv in Reactions 238U + 54Cr and 242Pu + 50Ti". jinr.ru. Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. Retrieved 2 November 2024. <a href="https://indico.jinr.ru/event/4343/contributions/28663/attachments/20748/36083/U%20+%20Cr%20AYSS%202024.pptx" target="_blank">https://indico.jinr.ru/event/4343/contributions/28663/attachments/20748/36083/U%20+%20Cr%20AYSS%202024.pptx</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">"В ЛЯР ОИЯИ впервые в мире синтезирован ливерморий-288" [Livermorium-288 was synthesized for the first time in the world at FLNR JINR] (in Russian). Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. 23 October 2023. Retrieved 18 November 2023. <a href="http://www.jinr.ru/posts/v-lyar-oiyai-vpervye-v-mire-sintezirovan-livermorij-288/" target="_blank">http://www.jinr.ru/posts/v-lyar-oiyai-vpervye-v-mire-sintezirovan-livermorij-288/</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:104">Zagrebaev, Valeriy; Karpov, Alexander; Greiner, Walter (2013). "Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?" (PDF). Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Vol. 420. IOP Science. pp. 1–15. Retrieved 20 August 2013. <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf" target="_blank">http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:105">Hong, J.; Adamian, G. G.; Antonenko, N. V.; Jachimowicz, P.; Kowal, M. (26 April 2023). Interesting fusion reactions in superheavy region (PDF). IUPAP Conference "Heaviest nuclei and atoms". Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. Retrieved 30 July 2023. <a href="https://indico.jinr.ru/event/3622/contributions/20021/attachments/15292/25806/Yerevan2023.pdf" target="_blank">https://indico.jinr.ru/event/3622/contributions/20021/attachments/15292/25806/Yerevan2023.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:106">Hong, J.; Adamian, G. G.; Antonenko, N. V. (2017). "Ways to produce new superheavy isotopes with Z = 111–117 in charged particle evaporation channels". Physics Letters B. 764: 42–48. Bibcode:2017PhLB..764...42H. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2016.11.002. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2016.11.002" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.physletb.2016.11.002</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:107">Zagrebaev, Valeriy; Karpov, Alexander; Greiner, Walter (2013). "Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?" (PDF). Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Vol. 420. IOP Science. pp. 1–15. Retrieved 20 August 2013. <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf" target="_blank">http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:108">Zagrebaev, V.; Greiner, W. (2008). "Synthesis of superheavy nuclei: A search for new production reactions". Physical Review C. 78 (3): 034610. arXiv:0807.2537. Bibcode:2008PhRvC..78c4610Z. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.78.034610. <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_C" target="_blank">/wiki/Physical_Review_C</a> <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:109">"JINR Annual Reports 2000–2006". JINR. Retrieved 2013-08-27. <a href="http://www1.jinr.ru/Reports/Reports_eng_arh.html" target="_blank">http://www1.jinr.ru/Reports/Reports_eng_arh.html</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:110">Zagrebaev, V.; Greiner, W. (2008). "Synthesis of superheavy nuclei: A search for new production reactions". Physical Review C. 78 (3): 034610. arXiv:0807.2537. Bibcode:2008PhRvC..78c4610Z. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.78.034610. <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_C" target="_blank">/wiki/Physical_Review_C</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:111">Zagrebaev, Valeriy; Karpov, Alexander; Greiner, Walter (2013). "Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?" (PDF). Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Vol. 420. IOP Science. pp. 1–15. Retrieved 20 August 2013. <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf" target="_blank">http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:112">Zagrebaev, Valeriy; Karpov, Alexander; Greiner, Walter (2013). "Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?" (PDF). Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Vol. 420. IOP Science. pp. 1–15. Retrieved 20 August 2013. <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf" target="_blank">http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:113">Zagrebaev, Valeriy; Karpov, Alexander; Greiner, Walter (2013). "Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?" (PDF). Journal of Physics: Conference Series. Vol. 420. IOP Science. pp. 1–15. Retrieved 20 August 2013. <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf" target="_blank">http://iopscience.iop.org/1742-6596/420/1/012001/pdf/1742-6596_420_1_012001.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:114">Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5. <a href="978-1-4020-3555-5" target="_blank">978-1-4020-3555-5</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:115">Thayer, John S. (2010). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements". Relativistic Methods for Chemists. Challenges and Advances in Computational Chemistry and Physics. Vol. 10. p. 83. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9974-8. <a href="978-1-4020-9974-8" target="_blank">978-1-4020-9974-8</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:116">Faegri, K.; Saue, T. (2001). "Diatomic molecules between very heavy elements of group 13 and group 17: A study of relativistic effects on bonding". Journal of Chemical Physics. 115 (6): 2456. Bibcode:2001JChPh.115.2456F. doi:10.1063/1.1385366. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1385366" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1385366</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:117">Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5. <a href="978-1-4020-3555-5" target="_blank">978-1-4020-3555-5</a> <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:118">Thayer, John S. (2010). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements". Relativistic Methods for Chemists. Challenges and Advances in Computational Chemistry and Physics. Vol. 10. p. 83. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9974-8. <a href="978-1-4020-9974-8" target="_blank">978-1-4020-9974-8</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:119">The quantum number corresponds to the letter in the electron orbital name: 0 to s, 1 to p, 2 to d, etc. See azimuthal quantum number for more information. <a href="/wiki/Azimuthal_quantum_number" target="_blank">/wiki/Azimuthal_quantum_number</a> <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:120">Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5. <a href="978-1-4020-3555-5" target="_blank">978-1-4020-3555-5</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:121">Fricke, Burkhard (1975). "Superheavy elements: a prediction of their chemical and physical properties". Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry. Structure and Bonding. 21: 89–144. doi:10.1007/BFb0116498. ISBN 978-3-540-07109-9. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
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<li id="fn:122">Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5. <a href="978-1-4020-3555-5" target="_blank">978-1-4020-3555-5</a> <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:123">Bonchev, Danail; Kamenska, Verginia (1981). "Predicting the Properties of the 113–120 Transactinide Elements". Journal of Physical Chemistry. 85 (9). American Chemical Society: 1177–1186. doi:10.1021/j150609a021. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239657207" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239657207</a> <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:124">Fricke, Burkhard (1975). "Superheavy elements: a prediction of their chemical and physical properties". Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry. Structure and Bonding. 21: 89–144. doi:10.1007/BFb0116498. ISBN 978-3-540-07109-9. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
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<li id="fn:125">Eichler, Robert (2015). "Gas phase chemistry with SHE – Experiments" (PDF). cyclotron.tamu.edu. Texas A & M University. Retrieved 27 April 2017. <a href="http://cyclotron.tamu.edu/she2015/assets/pdfs/presentations/Eichler_SHE_2015_TAMU.pdf" target="_blank">http://cyclotron.tamu.edu/she2015/assets/pdfs/presentations/Eichler_SHE_2015_TAMU.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:126">Thayer, John S. (2010). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements". Relativistic Methods for Chemists. Challenges and Advances in Computational Chemistry and Physics. Vol. 10. p. 83. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9974-8. <a href="978-1-4020-9974-8" target="_blank">978-1-4020-9974-8</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:127">Fricke, Burkhard (1975). "Superheavy elements: a prediction of their chemical and physical properties". Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry. Structure and Bonding. 21: 89–144. doi:10.1007/BFb0116498. ISBN 978-3-540-07109-9. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
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<li id="fn:128">Thayer, John S. (2010). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements". Relativistic Methods for Chemists. Challenges and Advances in Computational Chemistry and Physics. Vol. 10. p. 83. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9974-8. <a href="978-1-4020-9974-8" target="_blank">978-1-4020-9974-8</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:129">Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5. <a href="978-1-4020-3555-5" target="_blank">978-1-4020-3555-5</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:130">Fricke, Burkhard (1975). "Superheavy elements: a prediction of their chemical and physical properties". Recent Impact of Physics on Inorganic Chemistry. Structure and Bonding. 21: 89–144. doi:10.1007/BFb0116498. ISBN 978-3-540-07109-9. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
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<li id="fn:131">Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5. <a href="978-1-4020-3555-5" target="_blank">978-1-4020-3555-5</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:132">Thayer, John S. (2010). "Relativistic Effects and the Chemistry of the Heavier Main Group Elements". Relativistic Methods for Chemists. Challenges and Advances in Computational Chemistry and Physics. Vol. 10. p. 83. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9975-5_2. ISBN 978-1-4020-9974-8. <a href="978-1-4020-9974-8" target="_blank">978-1-4020-9974-8</a> <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:133">Nash, Clinton S.; Crockett, Wesley W. (2006). "An Anomalous Bond Angle in (116)H2. Theoretical Evidence for Supervalent Hybridization". The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 110 (14): 4619–4621. Bibcode:2006JPCA..110.4619N. doi:10.1021/jp060888z. PMID 16599427. <a href="https://figshare.com/articles/An_Anomalous_Bond_Angle_in_116_H_sub_2_sub_Theoretical_Evidence_for_Supervalent_Hybridization/3227647" target="_blank">https://figshare.com/articles/An_Anomalous_Bond_Angle_in_116_H_sub_2_sub_Theoretical_Evidence_for_Supervalent_Hybridization/3227647</a> <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:134">Nash, Clinton S.; Crockett, Wesley W. (2006). "An Anomalous Bond Angle in (116)H2. Theoretical Evidence for Supervalent Hybridization". The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 110 (14): 4619–4621. Bibcode:2006JPCA..110.4619N. doi:10.1021/jp060888z. PMID 16599427. <a href="https://figshare.com/articles/An_Anomalous_Bond_Angle_in_116_H_sub_2_sub_Theoretical_Evidence_for_Supervalent_Hybridization/3227647" target="_blank">https://figshare.com/articles/An_Anomalous_Bond_Angle_in_116_H_sub_2_sub_Theoretical_Evidence_for_Supervalent_Hybridization/3227647</a> <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:135">Nash, Clinton S.; Crockett, Wesley W. (2006). "An Anomalous Bond Angle in (116)H2. Theoretical Evidence for Supervalent Hybridization". The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 110 (14): 4619–4621. Bibcode:2006JPCA..110.4619N. doi:10.1021/jp060888z. PMID 16599427. <a href="https://figshare.com/articles/An_Anomalous_Bond_Angle_in_116_H_sub_2_sub_Theoretical_Evidence_for_Supervalent_Hybridization/3227647" target="_blank">https://figshare.com/articles/An_Anomalous_Bond_Angle_in_116_H_sub_2_sub_Theoretical_Evidence_for_Supervalent_Hybridization/3227647</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

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