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Mu wave
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<h2 id="mirror-neurons">Mirror neurons</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/Mirror_neuron_system/xfbp6k0S">mirror neuron system</a> consists of a class of <a href="/facts/Neuron/G7CyTVdH">neurons</a> that was first studied in the 1990s in <a href="/facts/Macaque_monkey/r2tPXVFu">macaque monkeys</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> Studies have found sets of neurons that fire when these monkeys perform simple tasks and also when the monkeys view others performing the same simple tasks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> This suggests they play a role in mapping others' movements into the brain without actually physically performing the movements. These sets of neurons are called mirror neurons and together make up the mirror neuron system. Mu waves are suppressed when these neurons fire, a phenomenon which allows researchers to study mirror neuron activity in humans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> There is evidence that mirror neurons exist in humans as well as in non-human animals. The right <a href="/facts/Fusiform_gyrus/MSfE0zCD">fusiform gyrus</a>, left <a href="/facts/Inferior_parietal_lobule/knfcBFj6">inferior parietal lobule</a>, right anterior <a href="/facts/Parietal_lobe/T74NKNTN">parietal cortex</a>, and left <a href="/facts/Inferior_frontal_gyrus/APew0EfB">inferior frontal gyrus</a> are of particular interest.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> Some researchers believe that mu wave suppression can be a consequence of mirror neuron activity throughout the brain, and represents a higher-level integrative processing of mirror neuron activity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Tests in both monkeys (using invasive measuring techniques) and humans (using EEG and <a href="/facts/FMRI/GIayRTAL">fMRI</a>) have found that these mirror neurons not only fire during basic motor tasks, but also have components that deal with intention.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> There is evidence of an important role for mirror neurons in humans, and mu waves may represent a high level coordination of those mirror neurons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="development">Development</h2> <p>A fruitful conceptualization of mu waves in pediatric use is that mu wave <i>suppression</i> is a representation of activity going on in the world, and is detectable in the <a href="/facts/Frontal_lobe/RvokInmf">frontal</a> and <a href="/facts/Parietal_lobe/T74NKNTN">parietal</a> networks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> A resting oscillation becomes suppressed during the observation of sensory information such as sounds or sights, usually within the <a href="/facts/Frontoparietal_network/W4unIWv4">frontoparietal</a> (motor) cortical region.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> The mu wave is detectable during infancy as early as four to six months, when the peak frequency the wave reaches can be as low as 5.4 <a href="/facts/Hertz/6Wshj5qm">Hz</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> There is a rapid increase in peak frequency in the first year of life,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> and by age two frequency typically reaches 7.5 Hz.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> The peak frequency of the mu wave increases with age until maturation into adulthood, when it reaches its final and stable frequency of 8–13 Hz.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> These varying frequencies are measured as activity around the <a href="/facts/Central_sulcus/hQPtCGq1">central sulcus</a>, within the Rolandic cortex.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p><p>Mu waves are thought to be indicative of an infant’s developing ability to <a href="/facts/Imitate/rh2QNCGr">imitate</a>. This is important because the ability to imitate plays a vital role in the development of <a href="/facts/Motor_skill/ywRAIzJE">motor skills</a>, tool use, and understanding causal information through social interaction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> Mimicking is integral in the development of social skills and understanding nonverbal cues.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> Causal relationships can be made through social learning without requiring experience firsthand. In action execution, mu waves are present in both infants and adults before and after the execution of a motor task and its accompanying desynchronization. While executing a goal-oriented action, however, infants exhibit a higher degree of desynchronization than do adults. Just as with an action execution, during action observation infants’ mu waves not only show a desynchronization, but show a desynchronization greater in degree than the one evidenced in adults.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> This tendency for changes in degree of desynchronization, rather than actual changes in frequency, becomes the measure for mu wave development throughout adulthood, although the most changes take place during the first year of life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> Understanding the mechanisms that are shared between action perception and execution in the earliest years of life has implications for <a href="/facts/Language_development/PyT27DHA">language development</a>. Learning and understanding through social interaction comes from imitating movements as well as vowel sounds. Sharing the experience of attending to an object or event with another person can be a powerful force in the development of language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p> <h3>Autism</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Autism/6MTwMNoJ">Autism</a> is a disorder that is associated with social and communicative deficits. A single cause of autism has not been identified, but the mu wave and mirror neuron system have been studied specifically for their role in the disorder. In a typically developing individual, the mirror neuron system responds when they either watch someone perform a task or perform the task themself. In individuals with autism, mirror neurons become active (and consequently mu waves are suppressed) only when the individual performs the task themself.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> This finding has led some scientists, notably <a href="/facts/Vilayanur_S._Ramachandran/Jnd4MAk3">V. S. Ramachandran</a> and colleagues, to view autism as disordered understanding of other individuals' <a href="/facts/Intention/ahzUpq2G">intentions</a> and <a href="/facts/Goal/N5UtLKVk">goals</a> due to problems with the mirror neuron system.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> This deficiency would explain the difficulty people with autism have in communicating with and understanding others. While most studies of the mirror neuron system and mu waves in people with autism have focused on simple motor tasks, some scientists speculate that these tests can be expanded to show that problems with the mirror neuron system underlie overarching <a href="/facts/Cognitive_deficit/VhJVfJ8a">cognitive</a> and <a href="/facts/Social_skills/8W31BlvH">social</a> deficits.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/FMRI/GIayRTAL">fMRI</a> activation magnitudes in the <a href="/facts/Inferior_frontal_gyrus/APew0EfB">inferior frontal gyrus</a> increase with age in people with autism, but not in typically developing individuals. Furthermore, greater activation was associated with greater amounts of eye contact and better <a href="/facts/Social_functioning/8W31BlvH">social functioning</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> Scientists believe the inferior frontal gyrus is one of the main neural correlates with the mirror neuron system in humans and is often related to deficits associated with autism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> These findings suggest that the mirror neuron system may not be non-functional in individuals with autism, but simply abnormal in its development. This information is significant to the present discussion because mu waves may be integrating different areas of mirror neuron activity in the brain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> Other studies have assessed attempts to consciously stimulate the mirror neuron system and suppress mu waves using <a href="/facts/Neurofeedback/ymHxLEsS">neurofeedback</a> (a type of <a href="/facts/Biofeedback/TjHHoUNT">biofeedback</a> given through computers that analyze real time recordings of brain activity, in this case EEGs of mu waves). This type of therapy is still in its early phases of implementation for individuals with autism, and has conflicting forecasts for success.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="braincomputer-interfaces">Brain–Computer Interfaces</h2> <p><a href="/facts/Brain%25E2%2580%2593computer_interface/wdXWqFVr">Brain–computer interfaces</a> (BCIs) are a developing technology that clinicians hope will one day bring more independence and agency to the severely physically disabled. This technology has the potential to help include people with near-total or total paralysis, such as those with <a href="/facts/Tetraplegia/uFthc4a2">tetraplegia</a> (quadriplegia) or advanced <a href="/facts/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis/9fIXnNL4">amyotrophic lateral sclerosis</a> (ALS); BCIs are intended to help them to communicate or even move objects such as motorized wheelchairs, <a href="/facts/Neuroprostheses/K38auu8M">neuroprostheses</a>, or robotic grasping tools.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> Few of these technologies are currently in regular use by people with disabilities, but a diverse array are in development at an experimental level.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> One type of BCI uses event-related desynchronization (ERD) of the mu wave in order to control the computer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> This method of monitoring brain activity takes advantage of the fact that when a group of neurons is at rest they tend to fire in synchrony with each other. When a participant is cued to imagine movement (an "event"), the resulting desynchronization (the group of neurons that was firing in synchronous waves now firing in complex and individualized patterns) can be reliably detected and analyzed by a computer. Users of such an interface are trained in visualizing movements, typically of the foot, hand, and/or tongue, which are each in different locations on the <a href="/facts/Cortical_homunculus/5dV3njP5">cortical homunculus</a> and thus distinguishable by an <a href="/facts/Electroencephalography/XGvpcBl5">electroencephalograph</a> (EEG) or <a href="/facts/Electrocorticograph/j6EhFgLV">electrocorticograph</a> (ECoG) recording of electrical activity over the <a href="/facts/Motor_cortex/oQ2w0g3S">motor cortex</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> In this method, computers monitor for a typical pattern of mu wave ERD <a href="/facts/Contralateral/IpJ1fq2f">contralateral</a> to the visualized movement combined with event-related synchronization (ERS) in the surrounding tissue.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> This paired pattern intensifies with training,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> and the training increasingly takes the form of games, some of which utilize <a href="/facts/Virtual_reality/0psDGsxT">virtual reality</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> Some researchers have found that the feedback from virtual reality games is particularly effective in giving the user tools to improve control of his or her mu wave patterns.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> The ERD method can be combined with one or more other methods of monitoring the brain's electrical activity to create hybrid BCIs, which often offer more flexibility than a BCI that uses any single monitoring method.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>Mu waves have been studied since the 1930s, and are referred to as the wicket rhythm because the rounded EEG waves resemble <a href="/facts/Croquet/n5rWpvvz">croquet wickets</a>. In 1950, <a href="/facts/Henri_Gastaut/Uf5h1mTU">Henri Gastaut</a> and his coworkers reported desynchronization of these waves not only during active movements of their subjects, but also while the subjects observed actions executed by someone else.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> These results were later confirmed by additional research groups,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> including a study using subdural <a href="/facts/Electrode/251PaKX8">electrode</a> grids in <a href="/facts/Epileptic/wawyp56a">epileptic</a> patients.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> The latter study showed mu suppression while the patients observed moving body parts in <a href="/facts/Somatic_nervous_system/wEIqqhg9">somatic</a> areas of the cortex that corresponded to the body part moved by the actor. Further studies have shown that the mu waves can also be desynchronized by imagining actions<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> and by passively viewing point-light <a href="/facts/Biological_motion/6cPSGECA">biological motion</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <h3>Brain waves</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Delta_wave/bQQ4jPg3">Delta wave</a> – (0.5 – 4 Hz)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Theta_wave/Cmsa8j23">Theta wave</a> – (4 – 7 Hz)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Alpha_wave/qNt4nQnq">Alpha wave</a> – (8 – 12 Hz)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a></li> <li>Mu wave – (8 – 13 Hz)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sensorimotor_rhythm/QSSrIDra">SMR wave</a> – (12.5 – 15.5 Hz)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Beta_wave/lcqYonEV">Beta wave</a> – (12.5 – 30 Hz)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/Gamma_wave/1jXxu2HK">Gamma wave</a> – (25 – 140 Hz)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Amzica, Florin; Fernando Lopes da Silva (2010). "Cellular Substrates of Brain Rhythms". In Schomer, Donald L.; Fernando Lopes da Silva (eds.). Niedermeyer's Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields (6th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 33–63. ISBN 978-0-7817-8942-4. <a href="978-0-7817-8942-4" target="_blank">978-0-7817-8942-4</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Amzica, Florin; Fernando Lopes da Silva (2010). "Cellular Substrates of Brain Rhythms". In Schomer, Donald L.; Fernando Lopes da Silva (eds.). Niedermeyer's Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields (6th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 33–63. ISBN 978-0-7817-8942-4. <a href="978-0-7817-8942-4" target="_blank">978-0-7817-8942-4</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Oberman, Lindsay M.; Edward M. Hubbarda; Eric L. Altschulera; Vilayanur S. Ramachandran; Jaime A. Pineda (July 2005). "EEG evidence for mirror neuron dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders". Cognitive Brain Research. 24 (2): 190–198. doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.014. PMID 15993757. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Pineda, Jaime A. (1 December 2005). "The functional significance of mu rhythms: Translating "seeing" and "hearing" into "doing"". Brain Research Reviews. 50 (1): 57–68. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2005.04.005. PMID 15925412. S2CID 16278949. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Churchland, Patricia (2011). Braintrust: What Neuroscience Tells Us About Morality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-691-13703-2. <a href="978-0-691-13703-2" target="_blank">978-0-691-13703-2</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Nyström, Pär; Ljunghammar, Therese; Rosander, Kerstin; Von Hofsten, Claes (2011). "Using mu rhythm desynchronization to measure mirror neuron activity in infants". Developmental Science. 14 (2): 327–335. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00979.x. PMID 22213903. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Oberman, Lindsay M.; Edward M. Hubbarda; Eric L. Altschulera; Vilayanur S. Ramachandran; Jaime A. Pineda (July 2005). "EEG evidence for mirror neuron dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders". Cognitive Brain Research. 24 (2): 190–198. doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.014. PMID 15993757. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Bernier, R.; Dawson, G.; Webb, S.; Murias, M. (2007). "EEG mu rhythm and imitation impairments in individuals with autism spectrum disorder". Brain and Cognition. 64 (3): 228–237. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2007.03.004. PMC 2709976. PMID 17451856. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2709976" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2709976</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Williams, Justin H.G.; Waiter, Gordon D.; Gilchrist, Anne; Perrett, David I.; Murray, Alison D.; Whiten, Andrew (1 January 2006). "Neural mechanisms of imitation and 'mirror neuron' functioning in autistic spectrum disorder" (PDF). Neuropsychologia. 44 (4): 610–621. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.06.010. PMID 16140346. S2CID 39014561. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2012. Retrieved 6 January 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120611223854/http://culture.st-and.ac.uk/whiten/docs/NeuralMechanisms.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120611223854/http://culture.st-and.ac.uk/whiten/docs/NeuralMechanisms.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Pineda, Jaime A. (1 December 2005). "The functional significance of mu rhythms: Translating "seeing" and "hearing" into "doing"". Brain Research Reviews. 50 (1): 57–68. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2005.04.005. PMID 15925412. S2CID 16278949. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Pfurtscheller, Gert; Christa Neuper (2010). "EEG-Based Brain–Computer Interfaces". In Schomer, Donald L.; Fernando H. Lopes da Silva (eds.). Niedermeyer's Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields (6th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 1227–1236. ISBN 978-0-7817-8942-4. <a href="978-0-7817-8942-4" target="_blank">978-0-7817-8942-4</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Williams, Justin H.G.; Waiter, Gordon D.; Gilchrist, Anne; Perrett, David I.; Murray, Alison D.; Whiten, Andrew (1 January 2006). "Neural mechanisms of imitation and 'mirror neuron' functioning in autistic spectrum disorder" (PDF). Neuropsychologia. 44 (4): 610–621. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.06.010. PMID 16140346. S2CID 39014561. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2012. Retrieved 6 January 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120611223854/http://culture.st-and.ac.uk/whiten/docs/NeuralMechanisms.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120611223854/http://culture.st-and.ac.uk/whiten/docs/NeuralMechanisms.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>di Pellegrino, G.; Fadiga, L.; Fogassi, L.; Gallese, F.; Rizzolatti, G. (1992). "Understanding motor events: A neurophysiological study". Experimental Brain Research. 91 (1): 176–180. doi:10.1007/bf00230027. PMID 1301372. S2CID 206772150. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Rizzolatti, G; Fogassi, L; Gallese, V (September 2001). "Neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the understanding and imitation of action". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 2 (9): 661–70. doi:10.1038/35090060. PMID 11533734. 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