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Aterian
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<h2 id="origin">Origin</h2> <p>Fleming et al. (2013) stated: </p> <blockquote><p>But Scerri (2012) also reckoned that the (Aterian) peoples were ultimately of <a href="/facts/Sub-Saharan/p4u389aa">sub-Saharan</a> origin, or as we have proposed, they dispersed from <a href="/facts/Ethiopia/LVujNp5v">Ethiopia</a> by way of the <a href="/facts/Sahel/LEmEpoaR">Sahel</a> and <a href="/facts/Lake_Chad/9YsQGmKP">Lake Chad</a> and the (<a href="/facts/Interglacial/gKf9Br27">interglacial</a>) <a href="/facts/Sahara/JVlJd2VC">Saharan</a> <a href="/facts/African_humid_period/jt4CB33R">wet spots</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></p></blockquote> <h2 id="description">Description</h2> <p>The technological character of the Aterian has been debated for almost a century,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> but has until recently eluded definition. The problems defining the industry have related to its research history and the fact that a number of similarities have been observed between the Aterian and other North African stone tool industries of the same date.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Levallois reduction is widespread across the whole of North Africa throughout the Middle Stone Age, and scrapers and denticulates are ubiquitous. Bifacial foliates moreover represent a huge taxonomic category and the form and dimension of such foliates associated with tanged tools is extremely varied.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> There is also a significant variation of tanged tools themselves, with various forms representing both different tool types (e.g., knives, scrapers, points) and the degree tool resharpening.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p> <p>More recently, a large-scale study of North African stone tool assemblages, including Aterian assemblages, indicated that the traditional concept of stone tool industries is problematic in the North African Middle Stone Age. Although the term Aterian defines Middle Stone Age assemblages from North Africa with tanged tools, the concept of an Aterian industry obfuscates other similarities between tanged tool assemblages and other non-Aterian North African assemblages of the same date.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> For example, bifacial leaf points are found widely across North Africa in assemblages that lack tanged tools and Levallois flakes and cores are near ubiquitous. Instead of elaborating discrete industries, the findings of the comparative study suggest that North Africa during the Last Interglacial comprised a network of related technologies whose similarities and differences correlated with geographical distance and the <a href="/facts/Paleoclimatology/p3x22QaC">palaeohydrology</a> of a <a href="/facts/Green_Sahara/jt4CB33R">Green Sahara</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> Assemblages with tanged tools may therefore reflect particular activities involving the use of such tool types, and may not necessarily reflect a substantively different archaeological culture to others from the same period in North Africa. The findings are significant because they suggest that current archaeological nomenclatures do not reflect the true variability of the archaeological record of North Africa during the Middle Stone Age from the Last Interglacial, and hints at how early modern humans dispersed into previously uninhabitable environments. This notwithstanding, the term still usefully denotes the presence of tanged tools in North African Middle Stone Age assemblages. </p><p>Tanged tools persisted in North Africa until around 20,000 years ago, with the youngest sites located in Northwest Africa. By this time, the Aterian lithic industry had long ceased to exist in the rest of North Africa due to the onset of the <a href="/facts/Quaternary_glaciation/5H9xbBTt">Ice Age</a>, which in North Africa, resulted in hyperarid conditions. Assemblages with tanged tools, 'the Aterian', therefore have a significant temporal and spatial range. However, the exact geographical distribution of this lithic industry is uncertain. The Aterian's spatial range is thought to have existed in North Africa up to the Nile Valley<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Possible Aterian lithic tools have also been discovered in Middle Paleolithic deposits in <a href="/facts/Oman/yNr7BPbm">Oman</a> and the <a href="/facts/Thar_Desert/uREh2fC8">Thar Desert</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p>Most <a href="/facts/Petroglyph/c1Vn0pJ4">engraved</a> <a href="/facts/Bubaline_rock_art/WbzVXG96">Bubaline rock art</a> appear in the northern region of Tassili, at <a href="/facts/Rock_engravings_of_Oued_Djerat/XKGIVT1q">Wadi Djerat</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Levallois_technique/KUG20Ccw">Levallois</a> instruments in the area may indicate that Bubaline rock art was developed by Aterians.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>In the <a href="/facts/Sahara/JVlJd2VC">Sahara</a>, Aterians camped near lakes, rivers, and springs, and engaged in the activity of hunting (e.g., antelope, buffalo, elephant, rhinoceros) and some gathering.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> As a result of a hyper-aridification event of Saharan <a href="/facts/Africa/XkqQUP9s">Africa</a>, which occurred around the time of <a href="/facts/Europe/DTAtrKfh">Europe</a>'s <a href="/facts/W%25C3%25BCrm_glaciation/LDGIqHnp">Würm glaciation</a> event, Aterian hunter-gatherers may have migrated into areas of <a href="/facts/Tropical_Africa/zx9lfXV2">tropical Africa</a> and <a href="/facts/Atlantic_Ocean/EI4uChIb">coastal Africa</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> More specifically, amid aridification in <a href="/facts/MIS_5/tn37T4JH">MIS 5</a> and regional change of climate in <a href="/facts/Marine_isotope_stage/FeVxhIJ3"> MIS 4</a>, in the Sahara and the <a href="/facts/Sahel/LEmEpoaR">Sahel</a>, Aterians may have migrated southward into <a href="/facts/West_Africa/oV8Dk0kp">West Africa</a> (e.g., <a href="/facts/Dakhlet_Nouadhibou/Ag2V5kyY"> Baie du Levrier</a>, <a href="/facts/Mauritania/JcP8EJku">Mauritania</a>; Tiemassas, <a href="/facts/Senegal/PPaRNYJH">Senegal</a>; Lower <a href="/facts/Senegal_River/qdPmyD3F">Senegal River</a> Valley).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="associated-behaviour">Associated behaviour</h2> <p>The Aterian is associated with early <i>Homo sapiens</i> at a number of sites in Morocco.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> While the <a href="/facts/Jebel_Irhoud/GVlKa0Vz">Jebel Irhoud</a> specimens were originally noted to have been similar to later Aterian and some <a href="/facts/Iberomaurusian/EoBsa2Hp">Iberomaurusian</a> specimens,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> further examinations revealed that the Jebel Irhoud specimens are similar to them in some respects but differ in that the Jebel Irhoud specimens have a continuous supraorbital torus while the Aterian and Iberomaurasian specimens have a discontinuous supraorbital torus or in some cases, none at all,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> and from this, it was concluded that the Jebel Irhoud specimens represent archaic <i>Homo sapiens</i> while the Aterian and Iberomaurusian specimens represent anatomically modern <i>Homo sapiens</i>. The 'Aterian' fossils also display morphological similarities with the early <a href="/facts/Out_of_Africa_theory/SJXAFKMA">out of Africa</a> modern humans found at <a href="/facts/Skhul_and_Qafzeh_hominids/TfNh7AL7">Skhul</a> and <a href="/facts/Skhul_and_Qafzeh_hominids/TfNh7AL7">Qafzeh</a> in the Levant, and they are broadly contemporary to them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> Apart from producing a highly distinctive and sophisticated stone tool technology, these early North African populations also seem to have engaged with <a href="/facts/Symbolic_anthropology/7lSh2XVp">symbolically constituted material culture</a>, creating what are amongst the earliest African examples of personal ornamentation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> Such examples of shell 'beads' have been found far inland, suggesting the presence of long distance social networks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p><p>Studies of the variation and distribution of the Aterian have also now suggested that associated populations lived in subdivided populations, perhaps living most of their lives in relative isolation and aggregating at particular times to reinforce social ties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> Such a subdivided population structure has also been inferred from the pattern of variation observed in early African fossils of <i>Homo sapiens</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>Associated faunal studies suggest that the people making the Aterian exploited coastal resources as well as engaging in hunting.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> As the points are small and lightweight, it is likely that they were not hand-delivered but instead thrown. There is no evidence that a spear thrower was used, but the points have characteristics similar to atlatl dart points. It has so far been difficult to estimate whether Aterian populations further inland were exploiting freshwater resources as well. Studies have suggested that <a href="/facts/Hafting/tjceKgAe">hafting</a> was widespread, perhaps to maintain flexibility in the face of strongly seasonal environment with a pronounced dry season.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> Scrapers, knives and points all seem to have been hafted, suggesting a wide range of activities were facilitated by technological advances. It is probable that plant resources were also exploited. Although there is no direct evidence from the Aterian yet, plant processing is evidenced in North Africa from as much as 182,000 years ago.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> In 2012, a 90,000-year-old bone knife was discovered in the Dar es-Soltan I cave, which is basically made of a cattle-sized animal's rib.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="associated-language">Associated language</h2> <p>Due to the archaeological spread of the Aterian culture and unique linguistic spread of the Niger-Congo languages (e.g., <a href="/facts/Atlantic_languages/UXc9CXGM">languages of the Atlantic coast</a> in <a href="/facts/Senegal/PPaRNYJH">Senegal</a>, <a href="/facts/Kordofan/CsWamCTD">Kordofan</a> in <a href="/facts/Sudan/yGeaNdvS">Sudan</a>), Fleming et al. (2013) indicates that possibly the “<a href="/facts/Nilo-Saharan/jVN5pesl">Nilo-Saharan</a> linguistic phylum is derived from the Aterian culture area.”<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="locations">Locations</h2> <h3>North Africa</h3> <ul><li>Ifri n'Ammar<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> (Morocco)</li> <li>Contrebandiers (Morocco)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Taforalt/QxPpbgbN">Taforalt</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> (Morocco)</li> <li>Rhafas (Morocco)</li> <li>Dar es Soltan I<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> (Morocco)</li> <li>El Mnasra (Morocco)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Kharga_Oasis/5m5QMPYR">Kharga Oasis</a> (Egypt)</li> <li>Uan Tabu (Libya)</li> <li>Oued el Akarit<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a>(Tunisia)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Adrar_Bous/IVkY2S94">Adrar Bous</a> (Niger)</li></ul> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aterian. <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Vermeersch, Pierre (2000). "The Nubian Complex and the Dispersal of Modern Humans in North Africa". In Krzyżaniak, Lech; Kroeper, Karla; Kobusiewicz, Michał (eds.). Recent Research into the Stone Age of Northeastern Africa. ISBN 83-907529-6-4 – via ResearchGate. <a href="83-907529-6-4" target="_blank">83-907529-6-4</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Gwen Robbins Schug, Subhash R. Walimbe (2016). A Companion to South Asia in the Past. John Wiley & Sons. p. 64. ISBN 978-1119055471. <a href="978-1119055471" target="_blank">978-1119055471</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Richter, Daniel; Moser, Johannes; Nami, Mustapha; Eiwanger, Josef; Mikdad, Abdeslam (2010-12-01). "New chronometric data from Ifri n'Ammar (Morocco) and the chronostratigraphy of the Middle Palaeolithic in the Western Maghreb". Journal of Human Evolution. 59 (6): 672–679. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.07.024. PMID 20880568. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Stone Tools Suggest Modern Humans Lingered in Arabia - Archaeology Magazine". <a href="https://www.archaeology.org/news/3040-150225-arabia-emiran-tools" target="_blank">https://www.archaeology.org/news/3040-150225-arabia-emiran-tools</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Scerri, Eleanor M. L. (2013-06-25). "The Aterian and its place in the North African Middle Stone Age" (PDF). Quaternary International. The Middle Palaeolithic in the Desert. 300: 111–130. Bibcode:2013QuInt.300..111S. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.09.008. <a href="https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/367294/1/SCERRI%2520E%2520M%2520L%2520PHD%2520E-THESIS.pdf" target="_blank">https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/367294/1/SCERRI%2520E%2520M%2520L%2520PHD%2520E-THESIS.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Langer, William L., ed. (1972). An Encyclopedia of World History (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. pp. 9. ISBN 978-0-395-13592-1. <a href="978-0-395-13592-1" target="_blank">978-0-395-13592-1</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Bouzouggar, Abdeljalil; Barton, Nick; Vanhaeren, Marian; d'Errico, Francesco; Collcutt, Simon; Higham, Tom; Hodge, Edward; Parfitt, Simon; Rhodes, Edward (2007-06-12). "82,000-year-old shell beads from North Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior". 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Bibcode:2013QuInt.300..111S. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.09.008. <a href="https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/367294/1/SCERRI%2520E%2520M%2520L%2520PHD%2520E-THESIS.pdf" target="_blank">https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/367294/1/SCERRI%2520E%2520M%2520L%2520PHD%2520E-THESIS.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Dibble, Harold L.; Aldeias, Vera; Jacobs, Zenobia; Olszewski, Deborah I.; Rezek, Zeljko; Lin, Sam C.; Alvarez-Fernández, Esteban; Barshay-Szmidt, Carolyn C.; Hallett-Desguez, Emily (2013-03-01). "On the industrial attributions of the Aterian and Mousterian of the Maghreb". Journal of Human Evolution. 64 (3): 194–210. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.10.010. PMID 23399349. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Scerri, Eleanor M. L. (2013-06-25). "The Aterian and its place in the North African Middle Stone Age" (PDF). 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