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Voiceless retroflex plosive
open-in-new
<h2 id="transcription">Transcription</h2> <p>The symbol that represents this sound in the <a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> is ⟨ʈ ⟩. Like all the <a href="/facts/Retroflex_consonant/lsBdJD4V">retroflex consonants</a>, the IPA symbol is formed by adding a rightward-pointing hook extending from the bottom of "t" (the letter used for the equivalent <a href="/facts/Alveolar_consonant/B6VkW2EX">alveolar consonant</a>). In many fonts lowercase "t" already has a rightward-pointing hook, but ⟨ʈ⟩ is distinguished from ⟨t⟩ by extending the hook below the <a href="/facts/Baseline_(typography)/63XFMVUb">baseline</a>. </p> <h2 id="features">Features</h2> <p>Features of the voiceless retroflex stop: </p> <ul><li>Its <a href="/facts/Manner_of_articulation/HxyCqDQC">manner of articulation</a> is <a href="/facts/Occlusive_(phonetics)/kURXYdtQ">occlusive</a>, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Since the consonant is also oral, with no <a href="/facts/Nasal_consonant/m6D3cVhe">nasal outlet</a>, the airflow is blocked entirely, and the consonant is a <a href="/facts/Plosive/okC9pztc">plosive</a>.</li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Place_of_articulation/exCzaxeF">place of articulation</a> is <a href="/facts/Retroflex_consonant/lsBdJD4V">retroflex</a>, which prototypically means it is articulated <a href="/facts/Subapical_consonant/0QJc2Fys">subapical</a> (with the tip of the tongue curled up), but more generally, it means that it is <a href="/facts/Postalveolar_consonant/YUo5nJly">postalveolar</a> without being <a href="/facts/Palatalization_(phonetics)/LXAIp4TB">palatalized</a>. That is, besides the prototypical subapical articulation, the tongue contact can be <a href="/facts/Apical_consonant/L7691gMF">apical</a> (pointed) or <a href="/facts/Laminal_consonant/EVA0SWmd">laminal</a> (flat).</li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Phonation/u2IGLdgG">phonation</a> is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless; in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds.</li> <li>It is an <a href="/facts/Oral_consonant/feM4cful">oral consonant</a>, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.</li> <li>It is a <a href="/facts/Central_consonant/YLATXvJW">central consonant</a>, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.</li> <li>Its <a href="/facts/Airstream_mechanism/qooe2ESC">airstream mechanism</a> is <a href="/facts/Pulmonic_egressive/BICa0WA0">pulmonic</a>, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the <a href="/facts/Intercostal_muscle/SFCkv3vD">intercostal muscles</a> and <a href="/facts/Abdominal_muscles/HcTzDFL0">abdominal muscles</a>, as in most sounds.</li></ul> <h2 id="occurrence">Occurrence</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="2">Language</th><th>Word</th><th><a href="/facts/International_Phonetic_Alphabet/2e7jmUaG">IPA</a></th><th>Translation</th><th colspan="3">Notes</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Bengali_language/twpKobqA">Bengali</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Bengali_alphabet/kdlW4eGK">টাকা</a></td><td>[ʈaka]</td><td>'<a href="/facts/Taka/zQuj5Wuo">taka</a>'</td><td colspan="3">Apical postalveolar;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> contrasts unaspirated and aspirated forms. See <a href="/facts/Bengali_phonology/QKXJtTGF">Bengali phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Brahui_language/GaWYJPWh">Brahui</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Perso-Arabic_script/GB5gsj1F">سىٹ</a></td><td>[asiʈ]</td><td>'one'</td><td colspan="3"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/English_language/tpkxGt7b">English</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Indian_English/LW2DcJGE">Indian dialects</a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/English_orthography/1Exe2W6G">time</a></i></td><td>[ʈaɪm]</td><td>'time'</td><td colspan="3">Corresponds to alveolar /t/ in other dialects. See <a href="/facts/English_phonology/awcxPhHL">English phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Gujarati_language/kGKRRbwe">Gujarati</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Gujarati_alphabet/zbJCS2Rm">બટાકા</a></td><td>[bəʈaːka]</td><td>'potato'</td><td colspan="3">Subapical;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> contrasts unaspirated and aspirated forms. See <a href="/facts/Gujarati_phonology/Ce4XrHc9">Gujarati phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Hindustani_language/rPnbEyYP">Hindustani</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Hindi_Language/n1QIEeCC">Hindi</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Devanagari/dQvQ3Ufs">टोपी</a></td><td rowspan="2">[ʈoːpiː]</td><td rowspan="2">'hat'</td><td rowspan="2">Apical postalveolar</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Urdu_alphabet/SzLs2Poc">Urdu</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Urdu_alphabet/SzLs2Poc">ٹوپی</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Hmong_language/rAVAmkzy">Hmong</a></td><td>𖬅𖬰<a href="/facts/Pahawh_Hmong/AWWwfHGD">𖬡</a> / <a href="/facts/Romanized_Popular_Alphabet/RR9KB2bR"><i>raus</i></a></td><td>[ʈàu]</td><td>'immerse in liquid'</td><td colspan="3">Contrasts with aspirated form (written ⟨rh⟩).</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Iwaidja_language/9SIPerTM">Iwaidja</a></td><td><i>yirrwartbart</i></td><td>[jiɺwɑʈbɑʈ]</td><td>'<a href="/facts/Coastal_taipan/eRBNCxHo">taipan</a>'</td><td colspan="3"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Javanese_language/la4H713D">Javanese</a></td><td><i>bathang</i></td><td>[baʈaŋ]</td><td>'cadaver'</td><td colspan="3"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Kannada_language/cooJ3trn">Kannada</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Kannada_script/LUbwH0pS">ತಟ್ಟು</a></td><td>[t̪ʌʈːu]</td><td>'to tap'</td><td colspan="3">Contrasts unaspirated and aspirated forms</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Lo-Toga_language/cQG8HKuF">Lo-Toga</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></td><td><i>dege</i></td><td>[ʈəɣə]</td><td>'we (<a href="/facts/Clusivity/7M8aQkYW">incl.</a>)'</td><td>Laminal retroflex.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Malayalam/YLuvDWd3">Malayalam</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Malayalam_script/HDsBdkqw">കാട്ട്</a> / <a href="/facts/Arabi_Malayalam_script/fCQ8Tbs9">كٰاڊّْ</a> / <i>kāṭṭŭ</i></td><td>[kaːʈːɨ̆]</td><td>'wild'</td><td colspan="3">Contrasts /t̪ t ʈ d̪ ɖ/.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Marathi_language/uIJuwlFW">Marathi</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Devan%25C4%2581gar%25C4%25AB/dQvQ3Ufs">बटाटा</a></td><td>[bəʈaːʈaː]</td><td>'potato'</td><td colspan="3">Subapical;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> contrasts unaspirated and aspirated forms. See <a href="/facts/Marathi_phonology/kjXbd1r6">Marathi phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Mutsun_language/rRMDlmfn">Mutsun</a></td><td><i>TiTkuSte</i></td><td>[ʈiʈkuʃtɛ]</td><td>'torn'</td><td colspan="3"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nepali_language/TSC8VdAw">Nepali</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Devan%25C4%2581gar%25C4%25AB/dQvQ3Ufs">टोली</a></td><td>[ʈoli]</td><td>'team'</td><td colspan="3">Apical postalveolar; contrasts unaspirated and aspirated forms. See <a href="/facts/Nepali_phonology/5gEhrASB">Nepali phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Norwegian_language/TGEyeerM">Norwegian</a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Norwegian_alphabet/ersy5Mfu">kort</a></i></td><td>[kɔʈː]</td><td>'card'</td><td colspan="3">See <a href="/facts/Norwegian_phonology/jmBIScAK">Norwegian phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Nunggubuyu_language/lErBF5hh">Nunggubuyu</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></td><td><i>rdagowa</i></td><td>[ʈakowa]</td><td>'prawn'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Odia_language/RCSkWVSf">Odia</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Odia_script/05jEzRTV">ଟଗର</a> / <i>ṭagara</i></td><td>[ʈɔgɔrɔ]</td><td>'crepe jasmine'</td><td>Apical postalveolar; contrasts unaspirated and aspirated forms.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Pashto_language/hc2ndCqx">Pashto</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pashto_alphabet/I39tJ6pD">ټول</a></td><td>[ʈol]</td><td>'all'</td><td colspan="3"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Punjabi_language/Dps9vRRe">Punjabi</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Gurmukhi/u6Nt0z14">Gurmukhi</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Gurmukhi/u6Nt0z14">ਟੋਪੀ</a></td><td rowspan="2">[ʈoːpi]</td><td rowspan="2">'hat'</td><td rowspan="2"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Shahmukhi_alphabet/nageddhg">Shahmukhi</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Shahmukhi_alphabet/nageddhg">ٹـوپی</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Scottish_Gaelic/KMI4MmzJ">Scottish Gaelic</a></td><td>Some <a href="/facts/Hebridean/zsj2EcdF">Hebridean</a> dialects<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></td><td><i>àrd</i></td><td>[aːʈ]</td><td>'high'</td><td colspan="3">Corresponds to the sequence /rˠt/ in other dialects. See <a href="/facts/Scottish_Gaelic_phonology/wf69X0FU">Scottish Gaelic phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Sicilian_language/RQHklfV4">Sicilian</a></td><td><i>latru</i></td><td>[ˈlaʈɽu]</td><td>'thief'</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Swedish_language/1DkSIXkH">Swedish</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Swedish_alphabet/9vQCp9EF">karta</a></i></td><td>[ˈkʰɑːʈa]</td><td>'map'</td><td colspan="3">See <a href="/facts/Swedish_phonology/2NY3Prus">Swedish phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Sylheti_language/dNAe8qmy">Sylheti</a></td><td>ꠐꠥꠟ꠆ꠟꠤ</td><td>[ʈulli]</td><td>'skull'</td><td>contains tonal pronunciation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Sylheti_phonology/dNAe8qmy">Sylheti phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Tamil_language/7I0lHL0d">Tamil</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Tamil_script/QAEV8dJ5">எட்டு</a> / <a href="/facts/Arwi/uSd8gM6q">يࣣڊُّ</a> / <i>eṭṭu</i></td><td>[eʈːɯ]</td><td>'eight'</td><td colspan="3">Subapical.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> See <a href="/facts/Tamil_phonology/k02LcIw7">Tamil phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Telugu_language/yV5dQWhw">Telugu</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Telugu_script/GzUHyXLb">కొట్టు</a></td><td>[koʈːu]</td><td>'to hit or beat'</td><td colspan="3">Contrasts unaspirated and aspirated forms</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Torwali_language/3EwNt9sB">Torwali</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Arabic_alphabet/hCA1a0xq">ٹـىىےل</a></td><td>[ʈiɡel]</td><td>'words'</td><td>Contrasts aspirated and unaspirated forms.</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Vietnamese_language/J3Pbx58C">Vietnamese</a></td><td>Southern dialects<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Vietnamese_alphabet/NyAkHElo">bạn trả</a></i></td><td>[ɓa˧˨ʔɳˀ ʈa˧˩˧]</td><td>'you pay'</td><td colspan="3">May be somewhat <a href="/facts/Affricate_consonant/Fn2y7FIA">affricated</a>. See <a href="/facts/Vietnamese_phonology/vqImbjKY">Vietnamese phonology</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><a href="/facts/Welayta_language/RuzFa3H3">Welayta</a></td><td colspan="2">[ʈaza]</td><td>'dew'</td><td colspan="3"></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Index_of_phonetics_articles/IwhbEHGN">Index of phonetics articles</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <ul><li>Eliasson, Stig (1986), "Sandhi in Peninsular Scandinavian", in Anderson, Henning (ed.), <i>Sandhi Phenomena in the Languages of Europe</i>, Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 271–300</li> <li>Keane, Elinor (2004), "Tamil", <i>Journal of the International Phonetic Association</i>, 34 (1): 111–116, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001549">10.1017/S0025100304001549</a></li> <li>François, Alexandre (2009), <a href="http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2009_Aorist-pronouns_Festschrift-Blust.pdf">"Verbal aspect and personal pronouns: The history of aorist markers in north Vanuatu"</a> (PDF), in Pawley, Andrew; Adelaar, Alexander (eds.), <i>Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history: A festschrift for Bob Blust</i>, vol. 601, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, pp. 179–195</li> <li>François, Alexandre (2016), <a href="https://marama.huma-num.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2016_History-personal-pronouns_north-Vanuatu_published.pdf">"The historical morphology of personal pronouns in northern Vanuatu"</a> (PDF), in Pozdniakov, Konstantin (ed.), <i>Comparatisme et reconstruction : tendances actuelles</i>, Faits de Langues, vol. 47, Bern: Peter Lang, pp. 25–60.</li> <li>Khatiwada, Rajesh (2009), "Nepali", <i><a href="/facts/Journal_of_the_International_Phonetic_Association/d94UV5qT">Journal of the International Phonetic Association</a></i>, 39 (3): 337–380, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181">10.1017/s0025100309990181</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Peter_Ladefoged/GPHjbHmP">Ladefoged, Peter</a> (2005), <i>Vowels and Consonants</i> (2nd ed.), Blackwell</li> <li>Lunsford, Wayne A. (2001), <a href="http://www.fli-online.org/documents/languages/torwali/wayne_lunsford_thesis.pdf">"An overview of linguistic structures in Torwali, a language of Northern Pakistan"</a> (PDF), <i>M.A. Thesis, University of Texas at Arlington</i></li> <li>Mazumdar, Bijaychandra (2000) [First published 1920], <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofbengali0000mazu"><i>The history of the Bengali language</i></a>, New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 8120614526</li> <li>Thompson, Laurence (1959), "Saigon phonemics", <i>Language</i>, 35 (3): 454–476, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F411232">10.2307/411232</a>, <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/411232">411232</a></li> <li>Tiwari, Bholanath (2004) [First published 1966], <i>Hindī Bhāshā</i>, Kitāb Mahal: Kitāb Mahal, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 81-225-0017-X</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060303132323/http://kiri.ling.cam.ac.uk/mark/SOE3.pdf">Phonology of English, including dialectical variations</a></li> <li><a href="https://phoible.org/parameters?sSearch_0=%CA%88">List of languages with [ʈ]</a> on <a href="/facts/PHOIBLE/2qqHhjzI">PHOIBLE</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Mazumdar (2000:57) - Mazumdar, Bijaychandra (2000) [First published 1920], The history of the Bengali language, New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, ISBN 8120614526 <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofbengali0000mazu" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/historyofbengali0000mazu</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Mazumdar (2000:57) - Mazumdar, Bijaychandra (2000) [First published 1920], The history of the Bengali language, New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, ISBN 8120614526 <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofbengali0000mazu" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/historyofbengali0000mazu</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Khatiwada (2009:374) - Khatiwada, Rajesh (2009), "Nepali", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 39 (3): 337–380, doi:10.1017/s0025100309990181 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Khatiwada (2009:374) - Khatiwada, Rajesh (2009), "Nepali", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 39 (3): 337–380, doi:10.1017/s0025100309990181 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Ladefoged (2005:141) - Ladefoged, Peter (2005), Vowels and Consonants (2nd ed.), Blackwell <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Tiwari (2004:?) - Tiwari, Bholanath (2004) [First published 1966], Hindī Bhāshā, Kitāb Mahal: Kitāb Mahal, ISBN 81-225-0017-X <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>François (2009:189); François (2016:35). - François, Alexandre (2009), "Verbal aspect and personal pronouns: The history of aorist markers in north Vanuatu" (PDF), in Pawley, Andrew; Adelaar, Alexander (eds.), Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history: A festschrift for Bob Blust, vol. 601, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, pp. 179–195 <a href="http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2009_Aorist-pronouns_Festschrift-Blust.pdf" target="_blank">http://alex.francois.online.fr/data/AlexFrancois_2009_Aorist-pronouns_Festschrift-Blust.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Khatiwada (2009:374) - Khatiwada, Rajesh (2009), "Nepali", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 39 (3): 337–380, doi:10.1017/s0025100309990181 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Khatiwada (2009:374) - Khatiwada, Rajesh (2009), "Nepali", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 39 (3): 337–380, doi:10.1017/s0025100309990181 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Ladefoged (2005:158) - Ladefoged, Peter (2005), Vowels and Consonants (2nd ed.), Blackwell <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Bauer, Michael. Blas na Gàidhlig: The Practical Guide to Gaelic Pronunciation. Glasgow: Akerbeltz, 2011. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Eliasson (1986:278–279) - Eliasson, Stig (1986), "Sandhi in Peninsular Scandinavian", in Anderson, Henning (ed.), Sandhi Phenomena in the Languages of Europe, Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 271–300 <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Wright, Tony (2002). "Doing language awareness". Language in Language Teacher Education. Language Learning & Language Teaching. Vol. 4. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 113–130. doi:10.1075/lllt.4.09wri. ISBN 978-90-272-1697-7. Retrieved 2023-07-11. <a href="978-90-272-1697-7" target="_blank">978-90-272-1697-7</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Khatiwada (2009:374) - Khatiwada, Rajesh (2009), "Nepali", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 39 (3): 337–380, doi:10.1017/s0025100309990181 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Keane (2004:111) - Keane, Elinor (2004), "Tamil", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 111–116, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001549 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001549" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001549</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Khatiwada (2009:374) - Khatiwada, Rajesh (2009), "Nepali", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 39 (3): 337–380, doi:10.1017/s0025100309990181 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0025100309990181</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Lunsford (2001:11–16) - Lunsford, Wayne A. (2001), "An overview of linguistic structures in Torwali, a language of Northern Pakistan" (PDF), M.A. Thesis, University of Texas at Arlington <a href="http://www.fli-online.org/documents/languages/torwali/wayne_lunsford_thesis.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.fli-online.org/documents/languages/torwali/wayne_lunsford_thesis.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>"ٹیگیل". Online Torwali Dictionary. Center for Language Engineering. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328054901/http://202.142.159.36:8081/otd/WordDetail.aspx?wdid=5146" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20240328054901/http://202.142.159.36:8081/otd/WordDetail.aspx?wdid=5146</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Thompson (1959:458–461) - Thompson, Laurence (1959), "Saigon phonemics", Language, 35 (3): 454–476, doi:10.2307/411232, JSTOR 411232 <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F411232" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F411232</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>