Roger Bacon

<h2 id="life">Life</h2>
Roger Bacon was born in <a href="/facts/Ilchester/vlCRC3sq">Ilchester</a> in <a href="/facts/Somerset%2c_England/gjVyBFVX">Somerset</a>, <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_England/1VqdIuFc">England</a>, in the early 13th century. His birth is sometimes narrowed down to 1210,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> 1213 or 1214,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> 1215<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> or 1220.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> The only source for his birth date is a statement from his 1267 Opus Tertium that "forty years have passed since I first learned the Alphabetum".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> The latest dates assume this referred to the <a href="/facts/Alphabet/vqfRpS3E">alphabet</a> itself, but elsewhere in the Opus Tertium it is clear that Bacon uses the term to refer to rudimentary studies, the <a href="/facts/Trivium/F180PttJ">trivium</a> or <a href="/facts/Quadrivium/Qm48ab6G">quadrivium</a> that formed the <a href="/facts/Medieval_university/qc7K6QhT">medieval curriculum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> His family appears to have been well off.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a>
Bacon studied at <a href="/facts/Oxford_University/ExVVQL6V">Oxford</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> While <a href="/facts/Robert_Grosseteste/q2YoLcUX">Robert Grosseteste</a> had probably left shortly before Bacon's arrival, his work and legacy almost certainly influenced the young scholar<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> and it is possible Bacon subsequently visited him and <a href="/facts/William_of_Sherwood/dewK9r2a">William of Sherwood</a> in <a href="/facts/Lincoln%2c_England/3gwo2aMl">Lincoln</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> Bacon became a <a href="/facts/Master_of_Arts/ABQoKTLg">Master</a> at Oxford, lecturing on <a href="/facts/Aristotle/U2bDlBFW">Aristotle</a>. There is no evidence he was ever awarded a doctorate. (The title Doctor Mirabilis was a posthumous <a href="/facts/Scholastic_accolade/cXD8w9w6">scholastic accolade</a>.) A caustic cleric named Roger Bacon is recorded speaking before the king at Oxford in 1233.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>

In 1237 or at some point in the following decade, he accepted an invitation to teach at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Paris/yXAx8nlG">University of Paris</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> While there, he lectured on <a href="/facts/Latin_grammar/KDs3Dyae">Latin grammar</a>, <a href="/facts/Term_logic/Ke2jxPC0">Aristotelian logic</a>, <a href="/facts/History_of_arithmetic/781z2zFE">arithmetic</a>, <a href="/facts/History_of_mathematics/18h5rQA5">geometry</a>, and the mathematical aspects of <a href="/facts/History_of_astronomy/js3QcRnX">astronomy</a> and <a href="/facts/Medieval_music/AC4d5rCy">music</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> His faculty colleagues included <a href="/facts/Robert_Kilwardby/AUrKhYMu">Robert Kilwardby</a>, <a href="/facts/Albertus_Magnus/12FJVrX9">Albertus Magnus</a>, and <a href="/facts/Peter_of_Spain_(logician)/0Vu5d8yQ">Peter of Spain</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> who may later become Pope as <a href="/facts/Pope_John_XXI/Ap3kjnMK">Pope John XXI</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> The <a href="/facts/Cornish_people/zxGlI9jK">Cornishman</a> <a href="/facts/Richard_Rufus_of_Cornwall/w6CmoscY">Richard Rufus</a> was a scholarly opponent.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> In 1247 or soon after, he left his position in Paris.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>

As a private scholar, his whereabouts for the next decade are uncertain<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> but he was likely in Oxford c. 1248–1251, where he met <a href="/facts/Adam_Marsh/EkPuAz1q">Adam Marsh</a>, and in Paris in 1251.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> He seems to have studied most of the known <a href="/facts/History_of_science_in_classical_antiquity/N0FtHsl4">Greek</a> and <a href="/facts/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world/VbUCtwNK">Arabic</a> works on <a href="/facts/History_of_optics/Ms7YFzhF">optics</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> (then known as "perspective", perspectiva). A passage in the Opus Tertium states that at some point he took a two-year break from his studies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a>
By the late 1250s, resentment against <a href="/facts/Henry_III_of_England/yRC7X3ge">the king</a>'s preferential treatment of <a href="/facts/House_of_Lusignan/bQG3seNd">his émigré Poitevin relatives</a> led to <a href="/facts/Henry_III_of_England/yRC7X3ge">a coup</a> and the imposition of the <a href="/facts/Provisions_of_Oxford/2t4E1P3h">Provisions of Oxford</a> and <a href="/facts/Provisions_of_Westminster/bqfoXcbo">Westminster</a>, instituting a <a href="/facts/Baron/XWpCggvM">baronial</a> council and more frequent <a href="/facts/Parliament_of_England/y4aNV9gj">parliaments</a>. <a href="/facts/Pope_Urban_IV/VtnX26HN">Pope Urban IV</a> absolved the king of his oath in 1261 and, after <a href="/facts/Treaty_of_Lambeth/XxF4xMza">initial abortive resistance</a>, <a href="/facts/Simon_de_Montfort%2c_6th_Earl_of_Leicester/97zdcpns">Simon de Montfort</a> led a force, enlarged due to recent crop failures, that prosecuted the <a href="/facts/Second_Barons%2527_War/m1FWg97f">Second Barons' War</a>. Bacon's own family were considered royal partisans:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> De Montfort's men seized their property<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> and drove several members into exile.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>

In 1256 or 1257, he became a <a href="/facts/Friar/NA6kEJb6">friar</a> in the <a href="/facts/Franciscans/gwohhd4C">Franciscan Order</a> in either Paris or Oxford, following the example of scholarly English Franciscans such as <a href="/facts/Robert_Grosseteste/q2YoLcUX">Grosseteste</a> and <a href="/facts/Adam_Marsh/EkPuAz1q">Marsh</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> After 1260, Bacon's activities were restricted by a statute prohibiting the friars of his order from publishing books or pamphlets without prior approval.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> He was likely kept at constant menial tasks to limit his time for contemplation<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> and came to view his treatment as an enforced absence from scholarly life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a>
By the mid-1260s, he was undertaking a search for patrons who could secure permission and funding for his return to Oxford.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> For a time, Bacon was finally able to get around his superiors' interference through his acquaintance with <a href="/facts/Pope_Clement_IV/mhkVGKlJ">Guy de Foulques</a>, <a href="/facts/Ancient_Diocese_of_Narbonne/2UeDvXwk">bishop of Narbonne</a>, <a href="/facts/Roman_Catholic_Suburbicarian_Diocese_of_Sabina-Poggio_Mirteto/H5vyIBlk">cardinal of Sabina</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Papal_legate/pHmzU23a">papal legate</a> who negotiated between England's royal and baronial factions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a>
In 1263 or 1264, a message garbled by Bacon's messenger, Raymond of Laon, led Guy to believe that Bacon had already completed a summary of the sciences. In fact, he had no money to research, let alone copy, such a work and attempts to secure financing from his family were thwarted by the Second Barons' War. However, in 1265, Guy was summoned to a conclave at <a href="/facts/Perugia/wTbCIYfD">Perugia</a> that <a href="/facts/Papal_conclave/JDth342D">elected</a> him <a href="/facts/Pope_Clement_IV/mhkVGKlJ">Pope Clement IV</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> William Benecor, who had previously been the courier between <a href="/facts/Henry_III_of_England/yRC7X3ge">Henry III</a> and the pope, now carried the correspondence between Bacon and Clement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> Clement's reply of 22 June 1266 commissioned "writings and remedies for current conditions", instructing Bacon not to violate any standing "prohibitions" of his order but to carry out his task in utmost secrecy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a>
While faculties of the time were largely limited to addressing disputes on the known texts of Aristotle, Clement's patronage permitted Bacon to engage in a wide-ranging consideration of the state of knowledge in his era.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> In 1267 or '68, Bacon sent the Pope his <a href="/facts/Opus_Majus/M3DVIL9R">Opus Majus</a>, which presented his views on how to incorporate <a href="/facts/Aristotelian_logic/Ke2jxPC0">Aristotelian logic</a> and <a href="/facts/Greek_science/N0FtHsl4">science</a> into a new theology, supporting Grosseteste's text-based approach against the "sentence method" then fashionable.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>
Bacon also sent his Opus Minus, De Multiplicatione Specierum,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> De Speculis Comburentibus, an optical lens,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> and possibly other works on <a href="/facts/Alchemy/CEx0U1Em">alchemy</a> and <a href="/facts/Astrology/kFP09KjH">astrology</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> The entire process has been called "one of the most remarkable single efforts of literary productivity", with Bacon composing referenced works of around a million words in about a year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a>
Pope Clement died in 1268 and Bacon lost his protector. The <a href="/facts/Condemnations_of_1210%25E2%2580%25931277/dAoK7pzM">Condemnations of 1277</a> banned the teaching of certain philosophical doctrines, including deterministic astrology. Some time within the next two years, Bacon was apparently imprisoned or placed under <a href="/facts/House_arrest/HarhtA21">house arrest</a>. This was traditionally ascribed to <a href="/facts/Minister_General_(Franciscan)/GFwltSFR">Franciscan Minister General</a> <a href="/facts/Pope_Nicholas_IV/uNHuUget">Jerome of Ascoli</a>, probably acting on behalf of the many clergy, monks, and educators attacked by Bacon's 1271 Compendium Studii Philosophiae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a>
Modern scholarship, however, notes that the first reference to Bacon's "imprisonment" dates from eighty years after his death on the charge of unspecified "suspected novelties"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> and finds it less than credible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> Contemporary scholars who do accept Bacon's imprisonment typically associate it with Bacon's "attraction to contemporary prophesies",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> his sympathies for "the radical 'poverty' wing of the Franciscans",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> interest in certain <a href="/facts/Astrology/kFP09KjH">astrological</a> doctrines,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a> or generally combative personality<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> rather than from "any scientific novelties which he may have proposed".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a>
Sometime after 1278, Bacon returned to the Franciscan House at Oxford, where he continued his studies<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> and is presumed to have spent most of the remainder of his life. His last dateable writing—the Compendium Studii Theologiae—was completed in 1292.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> He seems to have died shortly afterwards and been buried at Oxford.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>

<h2 id="works">Works</h2>

Medieval European philosophy often relied on <a href="/facts/Argument_from_authority/Dj4XMIeV">appeals to the authority</a> of <a href="/facts/Church_Fathers/U2aPanJQ">Church Fathers</a> such as <a href="/facts/Augustine_of_Hippo/RJI1otNA">St Augustine</a>, and on works by <a href="/facts/Plato/jGtT1UD5">Plato</a> and <a href="/facts/Aristotle/U2bDlBFW">Aristotle</a> only known at second hand or through Latin translations. By the 13th century, new works and better versions – in <a href="/facts/Arabic/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a> or in new Latin translations from the Arabic – began to trickle north from <a href="/facts/Al-Andalus/JTNmWTzP">Muslim Spain</a>. In Roger Bacon's writings, he upholds Aristotle's calls for the collection of facts before deducing scientific truths, against the practices of his contemporaries, arguing that "thence cometh quiet to the mind".
Bacon also called for reform with regard to <a href="/facts/Theology/N71Fyw2M">theology</a>. He argued that, rather than training to debate minor philosophical distinctions, theologians should focus their attention primarily on the <a href="/facts/Bible/SqkRTKCh">Bible</a> itself, learning the languages of its original sources thoroughly. He was fluent in several of these languages and was able to note and bemoan several corruptions of scripture, and of the works of the Greek philosophers that had been mistranslated or misinterpreted by scholars working in Latin. He also argued for the education of theologians in science ("<a href="/facts/Natural_philosophy/CUAsDWdk">natural philosophy</a>") and its addition to the <a href="/facts/Medieval_university/qc7K6QhT">medieval curriculum</a>.

<h3>Opus Majus</h3>

Main article: <a href="/facts/Opus_Majus/M3DVIL9R">Opus Majus</a>
Bacon's 1267 Greater Work, the <a href="/facts/Opus_Majus/M3DVIL9R">Opus Majus</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> contains treatments of <a href="/facts/Mathematics/pxTouaz4">mathematics</a>, <a href="/facts/Optics/p0vq4S1T">optics</a>, <a href="/facts/Alchemy/CEx0U1Em">alchemy</a>, and <a href="/facts/Astronomy/0ArJVM1p">astronomy</a>, including theories on the positions and sizes of the <a href="/facts/Celestial_bodies/BCHLa0Q2">celestial bodies</a>. It is divided into seven sections: "The Four General Causes of Human Ignorance" (Causae Erroris),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> "The Affinity of Philosophy with Theology" (Philosophiae cum Theologia Affinitas),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> "On the Usefulness of Grammar" (De Utilitate Grammaticae),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> "The Usefulness of Mathematics in Physics" (Mathematicae in Physicis Utilitas),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> "On the Science of Perspective" (De Scientia Perspectivae),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> "On Experimental Knowledge" (De Scientia Experimentali),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> and "A Philosophy of Morality" (Moralis Philosophia).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a>
It was not intended as a complete work but as a "persuasive preamble" (persuasio praeambula), an enormous proposal for a reform of the <a href="/facts/Medieval_university/qc7K6QhT">medieval university</a> curriculum and the establishment of a kind of library or encyclopedia, bringing in experts to compose a collection of definitive texts on these subjects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> The new subjects were to be "perspective" (i.e., <a href="/facts/Optics/p0vq4S1T">optics</a>), "astronomy" (inclusive of <a href="/facts/Astronomy/0ArJVM1p">astronomy</a> proper, <a href="/facts/Astrology/kFP09KjH">astrology</a>, and the <a href="/facts/Geography/TRd1Toyo">geography</a> necessary to use them), "weights" (likely some treatment of <a href="/facts/Mechanics/A3yHLQA5">mechanics</a> but this section of the Opus Majus has been lost), <a href="/facts/Alchemy/CEx0U1Em">alchemy</a>, <a href="/facts/Agriculture/TGztqzJs">agriculture</a> (inclusive of <a href="/facts/Botany/PaIRoxnb">botany</a> and <a href="/facts/Zoology/6Kj13mBt">zoology</a>), <a href="/facts/Medicine/2fnp90Je">medicine</a>, and "<a href="/facts/Experiment/esltM54f">experimental</a> science", a <a href="/facts/Philosophy_of_science/aonsfhTY">philosophy of science</a> that would guide the others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> The section on geography was allegedly originally ornamented with a <a href="/facts/History_of_cartography/I5AQEhDX">map</a> based on ancient and Arabic computations of longitude and latitude, but has since been lost.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> His (mistaken) arguments supporting the idea that dry land formed the larger proportion of the globe were apparently similar to those which later guided <a href="/facts/Christopher_Columbus/8hLAb46S">Columbus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a>
In this work Bacon criticises his contemporaries <a href="/facts/Alexander_of_Hales/6HAkmRr8">Alexander of Hales</a> and <a href="/facts/Albertus_Magnus/12FJVrX9">Albertus Magnus</a>, who were held in high repute despite having only acquired their knowledge of <a href="/facts/Aristotle/U2bDlBFW">Aristotle</a> at second hand during their preaching careers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a> Albert was received at Paris as an authority equal to Aristotle, <a href="/facts/Avicenna/EYKG4Vez">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/facts/Averroes/kPezHDV7">Averroes</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> a situation Bacon decried: "never in the world [had] such monstrosity occurred before."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a>

In Part I of the Opus Majus Bacon recognises some philosophers as the Sapientes, or gifted few, and saw their knowledge in philosophy and theology as superior to the vulgus philosophantium, or common herd of philosophers. He held Islamic thinkers between 1210 and 1265 in especially high regard calling them "both philosophers and sacred writers" and defended the integration of philosophy from apostate philosopher of the Islamic world into Christian learning.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a>
<h4>Calendrical reform</h4>
Main: <a href="/facts/Calendrical_reform/UqJwaDvD">Calendrical reform</a> and <a href="/facts/Gregorian_calendar/axJfTXV1">Gregorian calendar</a>
In Part IV of the Opus Majus, Bacon proposed a <a href="/facts/Calendar_reform/UqJwaDvD">calendrical reform</a> similar to the later <a href="/facts/Gregorian_calendar/axJfTXV1">system</a> introduced in 1582 under <a href="/facts/Pope_Gregory_XIII/oxlp2zDf">Pope Gregory XIII</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> Drawing on <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek_astronomy/ehwqftGz">ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/facts/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world/hw8HxDHz">medieval Islamic</a> astronomy recently introduced to western Europe via Spain, Bacon continued the work of <a href="/facts/Robert_Grosseteste/q2YoLcUX">Robert Grosseteste</a> and criticised the then-current <a href="/facts/Julian_calendar/EQBtA1ML">Julian calendar</a> as "intolerable, horrible, and laughable".
It had become apparent that <a href="/facts/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus/FgPAy5L9">Eudoxus</a> and <a href="/facts/Sosigenes_of_Alexandria/5KBsoDDM">Sosigenes</a>'s assumption of a year of 365¼ days was, over the course of centuries, too inexact. Bacon charged that this meant the <a href="/facts/Computus/HUosdPeP">computation of Easter</a> had shifted forward by 9 days since the <a href="/facts/First_Council_of_Nicaea/6lHSuWwy">First Council of Nicaea</a> in 325.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> His proposal to drop one day every 125 years<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> and to cease the observance of fixed <a href="/facts/Equinox/s8kaFsD2">equinoxes</a> and <a href="/facts/Solstice/3vEDtAhg">solstices</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> was not acted upon following the death of <a href="/facts/Pope_Clement_IV/mhkVGKlJ">Pope Clement IV</a> in 1268. The eventual <a href="/facts/Gregorian_calendar/axJfTXV1">Gregorian calendar</a> drops one day from the first three centuries in each set of 400 years.

<h4>Optics</h4>

See also: <a href="/facts/History_of_optics/Ms7YFzhF">History of optics</a>
In Part V of the <a href="/facts/Opus_Majus/M3DVIL9R">Opus Majus</a>, Bacon discusses <a href="/facts/Visual_system/QVcuA27K">physiology of eyesight</a> and the anatomy of the <a href="/facts/Human_eye/a24ua4fy">eye</a> and the <a href="/facts/Human_brain/qfSwSB8K">brain</a>, considering <a href="/facts/Light/jeofpMn4">light</a>, distance, position, and size, direct and <a href="/facts/Reflection_(physics)/BhcjDs79">reflected</a> vision, <a href="/facts/Refraction/S8kvSKzM">refraction</a>, <a href="/facts/Mirror/wMu4u6BB">mirrors</a>, and <a href="/facts/Lens_(optics)/ejlH6n5c">lenses</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> His treatment was primarily oriented by the Latin translation of <a href="/facts/Ibn_al-Haytham/Q5H9hm4J">Alhazen</a>'s <a href="/facts/Book_of_Optics/SmYrlPcg">Book of Optics</a>. He also draws heavily on <a href="/facts/Eugene_of_Palermo/2bTKf6Qc">Eugene of Palermo</a>'s Latin translation of the Arabic translation of <a href="/facts/Claudius_Ptolemy/htudGQTQ">Ptolemy</a>'s <a href="/facts/Optics_(Ptolemy)/xJKEAk2f">Optics</a>; on <a href="/facts/Robert_Grosseteste/q2YoLcUX">Robert Grosseteste</a>'s work based on <a href="/facts/Al-Kindi/JBAlstwD">Al-Kindi</a>'s <a href="/facts/Optics_(Al-Kindi)/JBAlstwD">Optics</a>;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a> and, through Alhazen (<a href="/facts/Ibn_al-Haytham/Q5H9hm4J">Ibn al-Haytham</a>), on <a href="/facts/Ibn_Sahl_(mathematician)/JUxrn4MA">Ibn Sahl</a>'s work on <a href="/facts/Dioptrics/puwjKPVj">dioptrics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a>

<h4>Gunpowder</h4>

A passage in the Opus Majus and another in the Opus Tertium are usually taken as the first European descriptions of a mixture containing the essential ingredients of <a href="/facts/Gunpowder/AEcB6HCR">gunpowder</a>. <a href="/facts/J._R._Partington/buCRdvax">Partington</a> and others have come to the conclusion that Bacon most likely witnessed at least one demonstration of <a href="/facts/Yuan_dynasty/mQl0o0XN">Chinese</a> <a href="/facts/Firecracker/jmqKzF8F">firecrackers</a>, possibly obtained by Franciscans—including Bacon's friend <a href="/facts/William_of_Rubruck/CFqX3jp4">William of Rubruck</a>—who visited the <a href="/facts/Mongol_Empire/cfddtfIK">Mongol Empire</a> during this period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a> The most telling passage reads:

<blockquote>We have an example of these things (that act on the senses) in [the sound and fire of] that children's toy which is made in many [diverse] parts of the world; i.e. a device no bigger than one's thumb. From the violence of that salt called saltpetre [together with sulphur and willow charcoal, combined into a powder] so horrible a sound is made by the bursting of a thing so small, no more than a bit of parchment [containing it], that we find [the ear assaulted by a noise] exceeding the roar of strong thunder, and a flash brighter than the most brilliant lightning.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> </blockquote>
At the beginning of the 20th century, Henry William Lovett Hime of the <a href="/facts/Royal_Artillery/5gWkJKdd">Royal Artillery</a> published the theory that Bacon's Epistola contained a <a href="/facts/Cryptogram/YPIngwDc">cryptogram</a> giving a recipe for the gunpowder he witnessed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a> The theory was criticised by <a href="/facts/Lynn_Thorndike/LheXRckS">Thorndike</a> in a 1915 letter to <a href="/facts/Science_(journal)/uTyzjkwD">Science</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> and several books, a position joined by <a href="/facts/M._M._Pattison_Muir/bMPHJ43e">Muir</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> <a href="/facts/John_Maxson_Stillman/4UNJUbST">John Maxson Stillman</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a> and <a href="/facts/George_Sarton/rhAkYlKf">Sarton</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a> <a href="/facts/Joseph_Needham/lC1qJAuI">Needham</a> et al. concurred with these earlier critics that the additional passage did not originate with Bacon<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a> and further showed that the proportions supposedly deciphered (a 7:5:5 ratio of <a href="/facts/Niter/vVeaDn51">saltpetre</a> to <a href="/facts/Charcoal/tpYGBHTn">charcoal</a> to <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulphur</a>) as not even useful for firecrackers, burning slowly with a great deal of smoke and failing to ignite inside a gun barrel.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> The ~41% <a href="/facts/Nitrate/5AnVlYnL">nitrate</a> content is too low to have explosive properties.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a>

<h3>Secret of Secrets</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Secretum_Secretorum/0VnlzSRs">Secretum Secretorum</a>
Bacon attributed the Secret of Secrets (Secretum Secretorum), the Islamic "Mirror of Princes" (<a href="/facts/Arabic_language/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>: Sirr al-ʿasrar), to <a href="/facts/Aristotle/U2bDlBFW">Aristotle</a>, thinking that he had composed it for <a href="/facts/Alexander_the_Great/8N3gLElj">Alexander the Great</a>. Bacon produced an edition of <a href="/facts/Philip_of_Tripoli/rUQ5ppKJ">Philip of Tripoli</a>'s Latin translation, complete with his own introduction and notes; and his writings of the 1260s and 1270s cite it far more than his contemporaries did. This led Easton<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a> and others, including <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Robert Steele</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a> to argue that the text spurred Bacon's own transformation into an experimentalist. (Bacon never described such a decisive impact himself.)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a> The dating of Bacon's edition of the Secret of Secrets is a key piece of evidence in the debate, with those arguing for a greater impact giving it an earlier date;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a> but it certainly influenced the elder Bacon's conception of the political aspects of his work in the sciences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a>

<h3>Alchemy</h3>

Bacon has been credited with a number of <a href="/facts/Alchemy/CEx0U1Em">alchemical</a> texts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a>
The Letter on the Secret Workings of Art and Nature and on the Vanity of Magic (Epistola de Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturae et de Nullitate Magiae),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a> also known as On the Wonderful Powers of Art and Nature (De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae), a likely-forged letter to an unknown "William of Paris," dismisses practices such as <a href="/facts/Necromancy/NLkPGRxI">necromancy</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a> but contains most of the alchemical formulae attributed to Bacon,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> including one for a <a href="/facts/Philosopher%2527s_stone/QA0SE7VS">philosopher's stone</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a> and another possibly for <a href="/facts/Gunpowder/AEcB6HCR">gunpowder</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a> It also includes several passages about <a href="/facts/History_of_flight/ePwqJ7pH">hypothetical flying machines</a> and <a href="/facts/History_of_submarines/QvEHwKEa">submarines</a>, attributing their first use to <a href="/facts/Alexander_the_Great/8N3gLElj">Alexander the Great</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> On the Vanity of Magic or The Nullity of Magic is a <a href="/facts/Debunking/71S1AR3x">debunking</a> of esoteric claims in Bacon's time, showing that they could be explained by natural phenomena.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a>
He wrote on the medicine of <a href="/facts/Galen/9gDqPdwl">Galen</a>, referring to the translations of <a href="/facts/Avicenna/EYKG4Vez">Avicenna</a>. He believed that the medicine of Galen belonged to an ancient tradition passed through <a href="/facts/Chaldea/T03FU73T">Chaldeans</a>, <a href="/facts/Greeks/wXwd2xlb">Greeks</a> and <a href="/facts/Arab/E77duPsg">Arabs</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a> Although he provided a negative image of <a href="/facts/Hermes_Trismegistus/YaPdy9Wr">Hermes Trismegistus</a>, his work was influenced by the <a href="/facts/Renaissance/4D9Bc6KU">Renaissance</a> Hermetic thought[dubious – discuss].<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a> Bacon's endorsement of Hermetic philosophy is evident, as his citations of the alchemical literature known as the Secretum Secretorum made several appearances in the Opus Majus. The Secretum Secretorum contains knowledge about the Hermetic <a href="/facts/Emerald_Tablet/ReDLc87t">Emerald Tablet</a>, which was an integral component of alchemy, thus proving that Bacon's version of alchemy was much less secular, and much more spiritual than once interpreted. The importance of Hermetic philosophy in Bacon's work is also evident through his citations of classic Hermetic literature such as the Corpus Hermeticum. Bacon's citation of the Corpus Hermeticum, which consists of a dialogue between Hermes and the pagan deity <a href="/facts/Asclepius/XPbV723H">Asclepius</a>, proves that Bacon's ideas were much more in line with the spiritual aspects of alchemy rather than the scientific aspects. However, this is somewhat paradoxical as what Bacon was specifically trying to prove in the Opus Majus and subsequent works, was that spirituality and science were the same entity. Bacon believed that by using science, certain aspects of spirituality such as the attainment of "Sapientia" or "Divine Wisdom" could be logically explained using tangible evidence. Bacon's Opus Majus was first and foremost, a compendium of sciences which he believed would facilitate the first step towards "Sapientia". Bacon placed considerable emphasis on alchemy and even went so far as to state that alchemy was the most important science. The reason why Bacon kept the topic of alchemy vague for the most part, is due to the need for secrecy about esoteric topics in England at the time as well as his dedication to remaining in line with the alchemical tradition of speaking in symbols and metaphors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a>

<h3>Linguistics</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Summa_Grammatica/TrUwyPgP">Summa Grammatica</a>
See also: <a href="/facts/Universal_grammar/kcWEQjx9">Universal grammar</a>
Bacon's early linguistic and logical works are the Overview of Grammar (<a href="/facts/Summa_Grammatica/TrUwyPgP">Summa Grammatica</a>), Summa de Sophismatibus et Distinctionibus, and the Summulae Dialectices or Summulae super Totam Logicam.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a> These are mature but essentially conventional presentations of Oxford and Paris's terminist and pre-<a href="/facts/Modistae/TbGSmYHV">modist</a> logic and grammar.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a> His later work in linguistics is much more idiosyncratic, using terminology and addressing questions unique in his era.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a>
In his Greek and Hebrew Grammars (Grammatica Graeca and Hebraica), in his work "On the Usefulness of Grammar" (Book III of the Opus Majus), and in his Compendium of the Study of Philosophy,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a> Bacon stresses the need for scholars to know several languages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a> Europe's vernacular languages are not ignored—he considers them useful for practical purposes such as <a href="/facts/Medieval_trade/S13U8JKr">trade</a>, <a href="/facts/Christian_proselytism/xaxfBxWk">proselytism</a>, and <a href="/facts/Government_in_the_High_Middle_Ages/RqzEKB9v">administration</a>—but Bacon is mostly interested in his era's <a href="/facts/Languages_of_science/Nht6AaJ9">languages of science</a> and religion: <a href="/facts/Arabic/A1e66hVV">Arabic</a>, <a href="/facts/Greek_language/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a>, <a href="/facts/Hebrew_language/hqKCSy9d">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/facts/Medieval_Latin/gyLMjaCX">Latin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a>
Bacon is less interested in a full practical mastery of the other languages than on a theoretical understanding of their grammatical rules, ensuring that a Latin reader will not misunderstand passages' <a href="/facts/Authorial_intent/AFbvDAsg">original meaning</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> For this reason, his treatments of Greek and Hebrew grammar are not isolated works on their topic<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a> but contrastive grammars treating the aspects which influenced Latin or which were required for properly understanding Latin texts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a> He pointedly states, "I want to describe Greek grammar for the benefit of Latin speakers".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a> It is likely only this limited sense which was intended by Bacon's boast that he <a href="/facts/Language_education/MQb6Iu8q">could teach an interested pupil a new language</a> within three days.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a>
Passages in the Overview and the Greek grammar have been taken as an early exposition of a <a href="/facts/Universal_grammar/kcWEQjx9">universal grammar</a> underlying all <a href="/facts/Human/rlcTENsr">human</a> <a href="/facts/Language/IRcTok2q">languages</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a> The Greek grammar contains the tersest and most famous exposition:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a>

<blockquote>Grammar is one and the same in all languages, substantially, though it may vary, accidentally, in each of them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a></blockquote>
However, Bacon's lack of interest in studying a literal <a href="/facts/Grammar/vprQsHIR">grammar</a> underlying the languages known to him and his numerous works on linguistics and comparative linguistics has prompted Hovdhaugen to question the usual literal translation of Bacon's grammatica in such passages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a> She notes the ambiguity in the Latin term, which could refer variously to the structure of language, to its description, and to the science underlying such descriptions: i.e., <a href="/facts/Linguistics/oQuamvf2">linguistics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a>

<h3>Other works</h3>

Bacon states that his Lesser Work (Opus Minus) and Third Work (Opus Tertium) were originally intended as summaries of the Opus Majus in case it was lost in transit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a> Easton's review of the texts suggests that they became separate works over the course of the laborious process of creating a <a href="/facts/Foul_papers/0Nm410oB">fair copy</a> of the Opus Majus, whose half-million words were copied by hand and apparently greatly revised at least once.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a>
Other works by Bacon include his "Tract on the Multiplication of Species" (Tractatus de Multiplicatione Specierum),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a> "On Burning Lenses" (De Speculis Comburentibus), the Communia Naturalium and Mathematica, the "Compendium of the Study of Philosophy" and "of Theology" (Compendium Studii Philosophiae and Theologiae), and his Computus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> The "Compendium of the Study of Theology", presumably written in the last years of his life, was an anticlimax: adding nothing new, it is principally devoted to the concerns of the 1260s.

<h3>Apocrypha</h3>
<a href="/facts/The_Mirror_of_Alchimy/gNlh8Qky">The Mirror of Alchimy</a> (Speculum Alchemiae), a short treatise on the origin and composition of metals, is traditionally credited to Bacon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a> It espouses the Arabian theory of <a href="/facts/Mercury_(element)/WlxfoHva">mercury</a> and <a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">sulphur</a> forming the other metals, with vague allusions to <a href="/facts/Alchemy/CEx0U1Em">transmutation</a>. <a href="/facts/John_Maxson_Stillman/4UNJUbST">Stillman</a> opined that "there is nothing in it that is characteristic of Roger Bacon's style or ideas, nor that distinguishes it from many unimportant alchemical lucubrations of anonymous writers of the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries", and <a href="/facts/M._M._Pattison_Muir/bMPHJ43e">Muir</a> and <a href="/facts/Edmund_Oscar_von_Lippmann/U5pCTows">Lippmann</a> also considered it a <a href="/facts/Pseudepigrapha/nwn5Ys67">pseudepigraph</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a>
The cryptic <a href="/facts/Voynich_manuscript/TVmWnJhg">Voynich manuscript</a> has been attributed to Bacon by various sources, including by its first recorded owner,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a> but <a href="/facts/History_of_science/pdBLPwP0">historians of science</a> <a href="/facts/Lynn_Thorndike/LheXRckS">Lynn Thorndike</a> and <a href="/facts/George_Sarton/rhAkYlKf">George Sarton</a> dismissed these claims as unsupported,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a> and the <a href="/facts/Vellum/YVaKAeCU">vellum</a> of the manuscript has since been dated to the 15th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a>

<h2 id="legacy">Legacy</h2>

Bacon was largely ignored by his contemporaries in favour of other scholars such as <a href="/facts/Albertus_Magnus/12FJVrX9">Albertus Magnus</a>, <a href="/facts/Bonaventure/S8vGKNnN">Bonaventure</a>, and <a href="/facts/Thomas_Aquinas/h2vN2VkX">Thomas Aquinas</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a> although his works were studied by Bonaventure, <a href="/facts/John_Pecham/GMktLKuo">John Pecham</a>, and <a href="/facts/Peter_of_Limoges/eUGyKFLs">Peter of Limoges</a>, through whom he may have influenced <a href="/facts/Raymond_Lull/MnK265Y1">Raymond Lull</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a> He was also partially responsible for the addition of <a href="/facts/History_of_optics/Ms7YFzhF">optics</a> (perspectiva) to the <a href="/facts/Medieval_university/qc7K6QhT">medieval university</a> <a href="/facts/Medieval_university/qc7K6QhT">curriculum</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a>
By the <a href="/facts/Early_modern_period/hhpHM721">early modern period</a>, the English considered him the epitome of a wise and subtle possessor of <a href="/facts/Western_esotericism/AW5dDFh1">forbidden knowledge</a>, a <a href="/facts/Faust/hV4GKH1s">Faust</a>-like magician who had tricked the <a href="/facts/Devil_(Christianity)/4FBx2qpz">devil</a> and so was able to go to <a href="/facts/Heaven_(Christianity)/1w90MSy0">heaven</a>. Of these legends, one of the most prominent was that he created a <a href="/facts/Brazen_head/c94eWNVz">talking brazen head</a> which could answer any question. The story appears in the anonymous 16th-century account of The Famous Historie of Fryer Bacon,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a> in which Bacon speaks with a demon but causes the head to speak by "the continuall fume of the six hottest Simples",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a> testing his theory that speech is caused by "an effusion of vapors".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a>
Around 1589, <a href="/facts/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)/YbVq23rW">Robert Greene</a> adapted the story for the stage as <a href="/facts/The_Honorable_Historie_of_Frier_Bacon_and_Frier_Bongay/d5wDrHr3">The Honorable Historie of Frier Bacon and Frier Bongay</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a> one of the most successful <a href="/facts/English_Renaissance_theatre/ecSNPJTc">Elizabethan comedies</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a> As late as the 1640s, <a href="/facts/Thomas_Browne/2l6bUfHS">Thomas Browne</a> was still complaining that "Every ear is filled with the story of Frier Bacon, that made a brazen head to speak these words, Time is".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a> Greene's Bacon spent seven years creating a brass head that would speak "strange and uncouth aphorisms"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a> to enable him to encircle <a href="/facts/Great_Britain/TNgGQRPj">Britain</a> with a wall of brass that would make it impossible to conquer.
Unlike his source material, Greene does not cause his head to operate by natural forces but by "<a href="/facts/Necromancy/NLkPGRxI">nigromantic</a> charms" and "the enchanting forces of the <a href="/facts/Devil_(Christianity)/4FBx2qpz">devil</a>":<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a> i.e., by entrapping a <a href="/facts/Ghost/U2zPJ81t">dead spirit</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a> or <a href="/facts/Hobgoblin/SKFD2aYK">hobgoblin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a> Bacon collapses, exhausted, just before his device comes to life and announces "Time is", "Time was", and "Time is Past"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a> before being destroyed in spectacular fashion: the <a href="/facts/Stage_direction/hwLV6854">stage direction</a> instructs that "a lightening flasheth forth, and a hand appears that breaketh down the Head with a hammer".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a>
A <a href="/facts/Brazen_head/c94eWNVz">necromantic head</a> was ascribed to <a href="/facts/Pope_Sylvester_II/U3ImP4Hg">Pope Sylvester II</a> as early as the 1120s,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a> but <a href="/facts/Thomas_Browne/2l6bUfHS">Browne</a> considered the legend to be a misunderstanding of a passage in <a href="/facts/Petrus_Bonus/x2dqbSTk">Peter the Good</a>'s c. 1335 <a href="/facts/Petrus_Bonus/x2dqbSTk">Precious Pearl</a> where the negligent alchemist misses the birth of his creation and loses it forever.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a> The story may also preserve the work by Bacon and his contemporaries to construct clockwork <a href="/facts/Armillary_sphere/0H2dIBdu">armillary spheres</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a> Bacon had praised a "self-activated working model of the heavens" as "the greatest of all things which have been devised".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a>
As early as the 16th century, <a href="/facts/Natural_philosophy/CUAsDWdk">natural philosophers</a> such as <a href="/facts/Giordano_Bruno/Xx30G4cc">Bruno</a>, <a href="/facts/John_Dee/YKm1t4ru">Dee</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a> and <a href="/facts/Francis_Bacon/qMJoNMRB">Francis Bacon</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a> were attempting to rehabilitate Bacon's reputation and to portray him as a scientific pioneer who had avoided the petty bickering of his contemporaries to attempt a rational understanding of nature. By the 19th century, commenters following <a href="/facts/William_Whewell/t2urFwd2">Whewell</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a> considered that "Bacon ... was not appreciated in his age because he was so completely in advance of it; he is a 16th- or 17th-century philosopher, whose lot has been by some accident cast in the 13th century".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171">171</a> His assertions in the Opus Majus that "theories supplied by reason should be verified by sensory data, aided by instruments, and corroborated by trustworthy witnesses"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172">172</a> were (and still are) considered "one of the first important formulations of the <a href="/facts/Scientific_method/182j8RWE">scientific method</a> on record".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173">173</a>

This idea that Bacon was a modern experimental scientist reflected two views of the period: that the principal form of scientific activity is experimentation and that 13th-century Europe still represented the "<a href="/facts/Dark_Ages_(historiography)/hbavBnAk">Dark Ages</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174">174</a> This view, which is still reflected in some 21st-century <a href="/facts/Popular_science/cnhLw9rI">popular science</a> books,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175">175</a> portrays Bacon as an advocate of modern experimental science who emerged as a solitary genius in an age hostile to his ideas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176">176</a> Based on Bacon's apocrypha, he is also portrayed as a visionary who predicted the invention of the <a href="/facts/Submarine/6fhcAKHV">submarine</a>, <a href="/facts/History_of_aviation/ePwqJ7pH">aircraft</a>, and <a href="/facts/Automobile/I1IsH8IK">automobile</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177">177</a> Consistent with this view of Bacon as a man ahead of his time, <a href="/facts/H._G._Wells/J0Y372Km">H. G. Wells</a>'s <a href="/facts/The_Outline_of_History/dIHHfCz8">Outline of History</a> attributes this prescient passage to him:<blockquote>Machines for navigating are possible without rowers, so that great ships suited to river or ocean, guided by one man, may be borne with greater speed than if they were full of men. Likewise, cars may be made so that without a draught animal they may be moved cum impetu inaestimabili, as we deem the scythed chariots to have been from which antiquity fought. And flying machines are possible, so that a man may sit in the middle turning some device by which artificial wings may beat the air in the manner of a flying bird.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178">178</a></blockquote>
However, in the course of the 20th century, <a href="/facts/Edmund_Husserl/xKlMH2KN">Husserl</a>, <a href="/facts/Martin_Heidegger/VSvHqhcj">Heidegger</a> and others emphasised the importance to the modern science of <a href="/facts/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes/ohqj6DMf">Cartesian</a> and <a href="/facts/Galileo_Galilei/98VT2z3v">Galilean</a> projections of <a href="/facts/Mathematics/pxTouaz4">mathematics</a> over sensory perceptions of nature; Heidegger, in particular, noted the lack of such an understanding in Bacon's works.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179">179</a> Although <a href="/facts/Alistair_Cameron_Crombie/3z7ClJxm">Crombie</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180">180</a> <a href="/facts/Thomas_Kuhn/gIHlTbdr">Kuhn</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181">181</a> and Schramm [de]<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182">182</a> continued to argue for Bacon's importance to the development of "qualitative" areas of modern science,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183">183</a> <a href="/facts/Pierre_Duhem/coxgQp9u">Duhem</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184">184</a> <a href="/facts/Lynn_Thorndike/LheXRckS">Thorndike</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185">185</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186">186</a> <a href="/facts/Raoul_Carton/MLIlHn8y">Carton</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187">187</a> and <a href="/facts/Alexandre_Koyr%25C3%25A9/duJ5XGJ3">Koyré</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188">188</a> emphasised the essentially medieval nature of Bacon's scientia experimentalis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189">189</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190">190</a>
Research also established that Bacon was not as isolated—and probably not as persecuted—as was once thought. Many medieval sources of and influences on Bacon's scientific activity have been identified.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191">191</a> In particular, Bacon often mentioned his debt to the work of <a href="/facts/Robert_Grosseteste/q2YoLcUX">Robert Grosseteste</a>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192">192</a> his work on optics and the calendar followed Grosseteste's lead,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193">193</a> as did his idea that <a href="/facts/Inductive_reasoning/EJ992JJ9">inductively-derived conclusions</a> should be submitted for verification through experimental testing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194">194</a>
Bacon noted of <a href="/facts/William_of_Sherwood/dewK9r2a">William of Sherwood</a> that "nobody was greater in philosophy than he";<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195">195</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196">196</a> praised <a href="/facts/Petrus_Peregrinus_de_Maricourt/brL9AmDx">Peter of Maricourt</a> (the author of "A Letter on Magnetism")<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197">197</a> and <a href="/facts/John_of_London/Q6Y2DcDI">John of London</a> as "perfect" mathematicians; <a href="/facts/Campanus_of_Novara/tN6pCV0K">Campanus of Novara</a> (the author of works on astronomy, astrology, and the calendar) and a Master Nicholas as "good";<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198">198</a> and acknowledged the influence of <a href="/facts/Adam_Marsh/EkPuAz1q">Adam Marsh</a> and lesser figures. He was clearly not an isolated genius.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199">199</a> The medieval church was also not generally opposed to scientific investigation<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200">200</a> and <a href="/facts/Science_in_the_Middle_Ages/pdBLPwP0">medieval science</a> was both varied and extensive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201">201</a>
As a result, the picture of Bacon has changed. Bacon is now seen as part of his age: a leading figure in the beginnings of the <a href="/facts/Medieval_university/qc7K6QhT">medieval universities</a> at <a href="/facts/University_of_Paris/yXAx8nlG">Paris</a> and <a href="/facts/University_of_Oxford/ExVVQL6V">Oxford</a> but one joined in the development of the philosophy of science by <a href="/facts/Robert_Grosseteste/q2YoLcUX">Robert Grosseteste</a>, <a href="/facts/William_of_Auvergne/9xPTCUxE">William of Auvergne</a>, <a href="/facts/Henry_of_Ghent/w2F3xAFC">Henry of Ghent</a>, <a href="/facts/Albertus_Magnus/12FJVrX9">Albert Magnus</a>, <a href="/facts/Thomas_Aquinas/h2vN2VkX">Thomas Aquinas</a>, <a href="/facts/Duns_Scotus/sqroAw2g">John Duns Scotus</a>, and <a href="/facts/William_of_Ockham/swyfVda2">William of Ockham</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202">202</a> <a href="/facts/David_C._Lindberg/1W8Atto9">Lindberg</a> summarised:

<blockquote>Bacon was not a modern, out of step with his age, or a harbinger of things to come, but a brilliant, combative, and somewhat eccentric <a href="/facts/Scholasticism/8AWMNsgV">schoolman</a> of the thirteenth century, endeavoring to take advantage of the new learning just becoming available while remaining true to traditional notions... of the importance to be attached to philosophical knowledge".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203">203</a></blockquote>
A recent review of the many visions of Bacon across the ages says contemporary scholarship still neglects one of the most important aspects of his life and thought: his commitment to the Franciscan order. 

<blockquote>His Opus majus was a plea for reform addressed to the supreme <a href="/facts/Pope/9zVokNjn">spiritual head of the Christian faith</a>, written against a background of <a href="/facts/Apocalypse/g7FkY8HS">apocalyptic</a> expectation and informed by the driving concerns of the <a href="/facts/Friar/NA6kEJb6">friars</a>. It was designed to improve training for <a href="/facts/Missionary/AtfQeYq3">missionaries</a> and to provide new skills to be employed in the defence of the Christian world against the enmity of non-Christians and of the <a href="/facts/Antichrist/R7fYj25M">Antichrist</a>. It cannot usefully be read solely in the context of the <a href="/facts/History_of_science/pdBLPwP0">history of science</a> and <a href="/facts/History_of_philosophy/zAH5PVD6">philosophy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204">204</a></blockquote>
With regard to religion's influence on Bacon's philosophy, <a href="/facts/Charles_Sanders_Peirce/z76dNqhM">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> noted, "To Roger Bacon,... the schoolmen's conception of reasoning appeared only an obstacle to truth... [but] Of all kinds of experience, the best, he thought, was interior illumination, which teaches many things about Nature which the external senses could never discover, such as the <a href="/facts/Transubstantiation/fdP2DuSz">transubstantiation</a> of bread."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:205" href="#fn:205">205</a> Later scholars have therefore viewed him as a proto-protestant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:206" href="#fn:206">206</a>
In <a href="/facts/University_of_Oxford/ExVVQL6V">Oxford</a> lore, Bacon is credited as the namesake of <a href="/facts/Folly_Bridge/lrMNEgch">Folly Bridge</a> for having been placed under house arrest nearby.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:207" href="#fn:207">207</a> Although this is probably untrue,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:208" href="#fn:208">208</a> it had formerly been known as "Friar Bacon's Bridge".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:209" href="#fn:209">209</a> Bacon is also honoured at Oxford by a plaque affixed to the wall of the new Westgate shopping centre.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:210" href="#fn:210">210</a>

<h2 id="in-popular-culture">In popular culture</h2>

To commemorate the 700th anniversary of Bacon's approximate year of birth, <a href="/facts/John_Erskine_(educator)/t6FtvPka">Prof. J. Erskine</a> wrote the biographical play A Pageant of the Thirteenth Century, which was performed and published by <a href="/facts/Columbia_University/Hlf1gw53">Columbia University</a> in 1914.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:211" href="#fn:211">211</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:212" href="#fn:212">212</a> A fictionalised account of Bacon's life and times also appears in the second book of <a href="/facts/James_Blish/cmdSU4lp">James Blish</a>'s After Such Knowledge trilogy, the 1964 <a href="/facts/Doctor_Mirabilis_(novel)/eLzpGsUA">Doctor Mirabilis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:213" href="#fn:213">213</a> Bacon serves as a mentor to the protagonists of <a href="/facts/Thomas_B._Costain/1mhG3Pum">Thomas Costain</a>'s 1945 <a href="/facts/The_Black_Rose_(novel)/U85DHxJP">The Black Rose</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:214" href="#fn:214">214</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:215" href="#fn:215">215</a> and <a href="/facts/Umberto_Eco/tDTJHXe6">Umberto Eco</a>'s 1980 <a href="/facts/The_Name_of_the_Rose/bmQ3D8gl">The Name of the Rose</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:216" href="#fn:216">216</a>
<a href="/facts/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)/YbVq23rW">Greene</a>'s <a href="/facts/Friar_Bacon_and_Friar_Bungay/d5wDrHr3">play</a> prompted a less successful sequel <a href="/facts/John_of_Bordeaux/Jr68KGwM">John of Bordeaux</a> and was recast as a children's story for <a href="/facts/James_Baldwin_(editor_and_author)/Y4lqV1YW">James Baldwin</a>'s 1905 Thirty More Famous Stories Retold.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:217" href="#fn:217">217</a> "The <a href="/facts/Brazen_Head/c94eWNVz">Brazen Head</a> of Friar Bacon" also appears in <a href="/facts/Daniel_Defoe/6FXvo1Rh">Daniel Defoe</a>'s 1722 <a href="/facts/A_Journal_of_the_Plague_Year/CP4vdGes">Journal of the Plague Year</a>, <a href="/facts/Nathaniel_Hawthorne/4VMKppE7">Nathaniel Hawthorne</a>'s 1843 "<a href="/facts/The_Birth-Mark/2t3BbvwK">The Birth-Mark</a>" and 1844 "<a href="/facts/The_Artist_of_the_Beautiful/kF3B6AcJ">The Artist of the Beautiful</a>", William Douglas O'Connor's 1891 "The Brazen Android" (where Bacon devises it to terrify <a href="/facts/Henry_III_of_England/yRC7X3ge">King Henry</a> into accepting <a href="/facts/Simon_de_Montfort%2c_6th_Earl_of_Leicester/97zdcpns">Simon de Montfort</a>'s demands for greater democracy),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:218" href="#fn:218">218</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:219" href="#fn:219">219</a> <a href="/facts/John_Cowper_Powys/L33x0Ern">John Cowper Powys</a>'s 1956 The Brazen Head, and <a href="/facts/Robertson_Davies/7prJEQKW">Robertson Davies</a>'s 1970 <a href="/facts/Fifth_Business/kG5h9S69">Fifth Business</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:220" href="#fn:220">220</a> Bacon appears in Rudyard Kipling's 1926 story 'The Eye of Allah'.

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Baco_(crater)/Q1KdzLTD">Baco</a>, a lunar crater named for Roger Bacon</li>
<li><a href="/facts/History_of_geomagnetism/lK0BJLoo">History of geomagnetism</a>, <a href="/facts/Translation/2foI82so">of translation</a>, <a href="/facts/History_of_scientific_method/ljK51E3M">of the scientific method</a>, and <a href="/facts/History_of_science/pdBLPwP0">of science in the Middle Ages</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/John_of_St_Amand/wJkdmreh">John of St Amand</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_Catholic_clergy_scientists/4NCbvtSK">List of Catholic clergy scientists</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Oxford_Franciscan_school/tHnm01Ks">Oxford Franciscan school</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Roger_Bacon_High_School/1ysbsdzk">Roger Bacon High School</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vitello/bXcspAr1">Vitello</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Wilfrid_Voynich/70jFvlrB">Wilfrid Voynich</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<h3>Citations</h3>

<h3>Sources</h3>
<h4>Primary sources</h4>

<ul><li>Anon. (1627), <a href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/bacon/baconhistory.html">The Famous Historie of Fryer Bacon: Containing the wonderfull things that he did in his Life: Also the manner of his Death; With the Lives and Deaths of the two Coniurers, Bungye and Vandermast</a>, London: G. Purslowe for F. Grove.</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1859), Brewer, J.S. (ed.), <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50167j/f7.image">Opera Quaedam Hactenus Inedita, Vol. I: Opus Tertium, Opus Minus, Compedium Philosophiae, & De Nullitate Magiae</a>, <a href="/facts/Chronicles_and_Memorials_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland_during_the_Middle_Ages/49xJsMt1">Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages</a>, No. 15 (in Latin and English), London: Eyre & Spottiswoode for Longman, Green, Longman, & Roberts</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press
<ul><li><a href="https://archive.org/stream/opusmajusofroger01baco">volume I</a></li>
<li><a href="https://archive.org/stream/opusmajusofroger02bacouoft#page/n5/mode/2up">volume II</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1900), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/stream/b24975655_0003#page/n5/mode/2up">The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon: Edited, with Introduction and Analytical Table, Supplementary Volume: Containing—Revised Text of First Three Parts; Corrections; Emendations; and Additional Notes</a> (in Latin and English), London: Williams & Norgate</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1902), Nolan, Edmond; et al. (eds.), Grammatica Graeca [Greek Grammar] (in Latin and Greek), <a href="/facts/Cambridge%2c_England/gNRdbmwK">Cambridge</a>: Cambridge University Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1909), Duhem, Pierre (ed.), <a href="http://capricorn.bc.edu/siepm/DOCUMENTS/BACON/Bacon_Fragment%20Op%20Tert.pdf">Un Fragment Inédit de l'Opus Tertium de Roger Bacon, Précédé d'une Étude sur Ce Fragment</a> (PDF) (in Latin and French), Quaracchi (Clara Aqua): <a href="/facts/College_of_St_Bonaventure/k2mY5Saw">College of St Bonaventure</a> (Collegium S. Bonaventurae)</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1909), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a> (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/operahactenusine01baco">Metaphysica: De Viciis Contractis in Studio Theologie</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. I (in Latin and English), Oxford: Henry Frowde for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (c. 1910), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a> (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/operahactenusine02baco">Communium Naturalium, Vol. I, Pt. I & II</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. II (in Latin and English), Oxford: Henry Frowde for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1911), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a> (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/operahactenusine03baco">Communium Naturalium, Vol. I, Pt. III & IV</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. III (in Latin and English), Oxford: Henry Frowde for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1912), Little, Andrew George (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/partofopustertiu04baco">Part of the Opus Tertium of Roger Bacon, Including a Fragment Now Printed for the First Time</a>, British Society of Franciscan Studies, No. IV (in Latin and English), Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1913), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a> (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/stream/operahactenusine04baco#page/n5/mode/2up">Communium Naturalium, Vol. II: De Celestibus</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. IV (in Latin and English), Oxford: Henry Frowde for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1920), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a>; et al. (eds.), <a href="https://archive.org/stream/operahactenusine05baco#page/n5/mode/2up">Secretum Secretorum cum Glossis et Notulis Tractatus Brevis et Utilis ad Declarandum Quedam Obscure Dicta</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. V (in Latin and English), Oxford: Humphrey Milford for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger; et al. (1926), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a> (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/p6p7operahactenu00baco">Compotus</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. VI (in Latin and English), Oxford: Humphrey Milford for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1926), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a>; et al. (eds.), <a href="https://archive.org/stream/p6p7operahactenu00baco#page/n337/mode/2up">Questiones Supra Undecimum Prime Philosophie Aristotelis (Metaphysica XII), Pt. I & II</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. VII (in Latin and English), Oxford: John Jonson for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1928), Delorme, Ferdinand M.; et al. (eds.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/operahactenusinep8p9baco">Questiones Supra Libros Quartuor Physicorum Aristotelis</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. VIII (in Latin and English), Oxford: Humphrey Milford for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1928), Little, Andrew George; et al. (eds.), <a href="https://archive.org/stream/operahactenusinep8p9baco#page/284/mode/2up">De Retardatione Accidentium Senectutis cum Aliis Opusculis de Rebus Medicinalibus</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. IX (in Latin and English), Oxford: Humphrey Milford for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1930), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a>; et al. (eds.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/operahactenusine10baco">Questiones supra Libros Prime Philosophie Aristotelis (Metaphysica I, II, V–X)</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. X (in Latin and English), Oxford: John Jonson for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger; et al. (1932), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a>; et al. (eds.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/operahactenusine11baco">Questiones Altere supra Libros Prime Philosophie Aristotelis (Metaphysica I–IV), Questiones supra de Plantis, & Metaphysica Vetus</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. XI (in Latin and English), Oxford: John Jonson for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1935), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a>; et al. (eds.), Quaestiones supra Librum de Causis, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. XII (in Latin and English), Oxford: Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1935), Delorme, Ferdinand M.; et al. (eds.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/operahactenusine13baco">Questiones supra Libros Octo Physicorum Aristotelis</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. XIII (in Latin and English), Oxford: John Jonson for Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1937), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a> (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/operahactenusine14baco">Liber de Sensu et Sensato & Summa de Sophismatibus et Distinctionibus</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. XIV (in Latin and English), Oxford: Humphrey Milford for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1940), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a> (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/operahactenusine15baco">Summa Gramatica necnon Sumule Dialectices</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. XV (in Latin and English), Oxford: John Jonson for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1940), <a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a> (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/operahactenusine16baco">Communia Mathematica, Pt. I & II</a>, Opera Hactenus Inedita Rogeri Baconi, No. XVI (in Latin and English), Oxford: John Jonson for the Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1983), <a href="/facts/David_C._Lindberg/1W8Atto9">Lindberg, David C.</a> (ed.), Roger Bacon's Philosophy of Nature: A Critical Edition, with English Translation, Introduction, and Notes, of "De Multiplicatione Specierum" and "De Speculis Comburentibus" (in Latin and English), Oxford: Clarendon Press</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1988), Maloney, Thomas S. (ed.), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fx84AAAAIAAJ">Compendium of the Study of Theology: Edition and Translation with Introduction and Notes</a>, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 20 (in Latin and English), Leiden: E.J. Brill, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 90-04-08510-6</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (1996), <a href="/facts/David_C._Lindberg/1W8Atto9">Lindberg, David C.</a> (ed.), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jSPHMKbjYkQC">Roger Bacon and the Origins of Perspectiva in the Middle Ages: A Critical Edition and English Translation of Bacon's Perspectiva with Introduction and Notes</a> (in Latin and English), Oxford: Clarendon Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-19-823992-0</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (2009), Maloney, Thomas S. (ed.), The Art and Science of Logic: A Translation of Roger Bacon's Summulae Dialectices with Introduction and Notes, Mediaeval Sources in Translation, No. 47, Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies.</li>
<li>Bacon, Roger (2013), Maloney, Thomas S. (ed.), On Signs, Translated with Introduction and Notes, Mediaeval Sources in Translation, No. 54, Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)/YbVq23rW">Greene, Robert</a> (1594), <a href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t6g163q8x;view=2up;seq=6">The Honorable Historie of frier Bacon and frier Bongay</a>, Old English drama. Students' facsimile edition, London: Edward White, reprinted in facsimile in 1914 by The Tudor Facsimile Texts.</li></ul>

<h4>Reference works</h4>

<ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon">"Roger Bacon" </a>, <a href="/facts/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica/CEyVsjlN">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>, vol. 3 (9th ed.), 1878, pp. 218–221.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Robert_Adamson_(philosopher)/okS98RbS">Adamson, Robert</a> (1911). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Roger_Bacon">"Roger Bacon" </a>. <a href="/facts/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition/mPElbCRY">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). pp. 153–156..</li>
<li>"Roger Bacon", Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, 2005, p. 71, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-96930-7.</li>
<li>Molland, George (2004). "Bacon, Roger (c.1214–1292?)". <a href="/facts/Dictionary_of_National_Biography/QCm9t1Sn">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F1008">10.1093/ref:odnb/1008</a>. (Subscription or <a href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</li>
<li> <a href="/facts/John_William_Cousin/k5ET31aJ">Cousin, John William</a> (1910), "Bacon, Roger", <a href="/facts/A_Short_Biographical_Dictionary_of_English_Literature/voWHoX95">A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature</a>, London: J. M. Dent & Sons – via <a href="/facts/Wikisource/TrMdylNf">Wikisource</a>{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link).</li>
<li><a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/">"Roger Bacon"</a>, <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>, Stanford University, 2013.</li>
<li><a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjhkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA39">"Roger Bacon"</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjhkAAAAcAAJ">The Worthies of the United Kingdom; or Biographical Accounts of the Lives of the Most Illustrious Men, in Arts, Arms, Literature, and Science, connected with Great Britain</a>, London: D. Sidney for Knight & Lacey, 1828, pp. 39–48.</li></ul>

<h4>Secondary sources</h4>

<ul><li>Ackerman, James S. (1978), "Leonardo's Eye", Journal of the Warburg & Courtauld Institutes, vol. 41.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/James_Baldwin_(editor_and_author)/Y4lqV1YW">Baldwin, James</a> (1905), Thirty More Famous Stories Retold, Cincinnati: American Book Co..</li>
<li>Bartlett, Robert (2008) [b2006], The Natural and the Supernatural in the Middle Ages: The Wiles Lecture Given at the Queen's University of Belfast, 2006, <a href="/facts/Cambridge%2c_England/gNRdbmwK">Cambridge</a>: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-70255-3.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/James_Blish/cmdSU4lp">Blish, James</a> (1964), <a href="/facts/Doctor_Mirabilis_(novel)/eLzpGsUA">Doctor Mirabilis: A Vision</a>, New English Library</li>
<li>Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129">"'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay"</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ">The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature</a>, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7546-6865-7.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Brian_Clegg_(writer)/eR5J6eMW">Clegg, Brian</a> (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-147211-212-5.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Alistair_Cameron_Crombie/3z7ClJxm">Crombie, Alistair Cameron</a> (1953), Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science, 100–1700, Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Alistair_Cameron_Crombie/3z7ClJxm">Crombie, Alistair Cameron</a> (1990), "Science, Optics, and Music in Medieval and Early Modern Thought", Medical History, 36 (1), Continuum Int'l Publishing: 119, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-907628-79-8, <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1036552">1036552</a>.</li>
<li>Duhem, Pierre (1915), Le Système du Monde: Histoire des Doctrines Cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic, Vol. III (in French)</li>
<li>Easton, Stewart C. (1952), Roger Bacon and His Search for a Universal Science: A Reconsideration of the Life and Work of Roger Bacon in the Light of His Own Stated Purpose, New York: Columbia University Press.</li>
<li>El-Bizri, Nader (2005), "A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen's Optics", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy, vol. 15, <a href="/facts/Cambridge%2c_England/gNRdbmwK">Cambridge</a>: Cambridge University Press, pp. 189–218.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/John_Erskine_(educator)/t6FtvPka">Erskine, John</a> (1914), A Pageant of the Thirteenth Century, New York: Columbia University Press.</li>
<li>Fauvel, John; et al. (2000), Oxford Figures: 800 Years of the Mathematical Sciences, Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-852309-3.</li>
<li>Gauch, Hugh G. (2003), Scientific Method in Practice, <a href="/facts/Cambridge%2c_England/gNRdbmwK">Cambridge</a>: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-01708-4.</li>
<li>Goldstone, Lawrence; et al., The Friar and the Cipher: Roger Bacon and the Unsolved Mystery of the Most Unusual Manuscript in the World, Doubleday.</li>
<li>Grant, Edward (2001), God and Reason in the Middle Ages, <a href="/facts/Cambridge%2c_England/gNRdbmwK">Cambridge</a>: Cambridge University Press.</li>
<li>Gray, Douglas (2011), From the Norman Conquest to the Black Death: An Anthology of Writings from England, Oxford: Oxford University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-812353-8.</li>
<li>Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1980), "The Attitude of Roger Bacon to the Scientia of Albertus Magnus", Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studies and Texts, vol. 49, Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, pp. 53–72, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-88844-049-9.</li>
<li>Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9">"Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works"</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC">Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays</a>, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 90-04-10015-6.</li>
<li>Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon on the Classification of the Sciences", <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC">Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays</a>, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 49–66, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 90-04-10015-6.</li>
<li>Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA277">"Roger Bacon on Scientia Experimentalis"</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC">Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays</a>, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 277–316, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 90-04-10015-6.</li>
<li>Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (2011), "Roger Bacon", The History of Western Philosophy of Religion, vol. 2, Durham: Acumen Publishing Limited, pp. 151–166, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-84465-464-2</li>
<li>Hall, Bert S. (1999), "Introduction", <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekfi00part">James Riddick Partington's History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder</a>, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8018-5954-0.</li>
<li>Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117">"Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar"</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ">De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg</a>, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 90-272-4526-6.</li>
<li>James, R.R. (1928), "The Father of British Optics: Roger Bacon, c. 1214–1294", British Journal of Ophthalmology, vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 1–14, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbjo.12.1.1">10.1136/bjo.12.1.1</a>, <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC511940">511940</a>, <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18168687">18168687</a>.</li>
<li>Kavey, Allison (2007), Books of Secrets: Natural Philosophy in England, 1550–1600.</li>
<li>Koyré, Alexander (1957), "The Origins of Modern Science: A New Interpretation", Diogenes, vol. 4, pp. 421–448.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Thomas_S._Kuhn/gIHlTbdr">Kuhn, Thomas S.</a> (1976), "Mathematical vs. Experimental Traditions in the Development of Physical Science", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, vol. VII, No. 1, Summer, pp. 1–31.</li>
<li>LeMay, Richard (1997), "Roger Bacon's Attitude toward the Latin Translations and Translators of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries", <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC">Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays</a>, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 90-04-10015-6.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/David_C._Lindberg/1W8Atto9">Lindberg, David C.</a> (1987), "Science as Handmaiden: Roger Bacon and the Patristic Tradition", Isis: A Journal of the History of Science, vol. 78, pp. 518–536, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F354550">10.1086/354550</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145569406">145569406</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/David_C._Lindberg/1W8Atto9">Lindberg, David C.</a> (1995), "Medieval Science and Its Religious Context", Osiris, vol. 10, No. 10, Saint Catherines Press, The University of Chicago Press, The History of Science Society, pp. 60–79, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368743">10.1086/368743</a>, <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/301913">301913</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144193487">144193487</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/David_C._Lindberg/1W8Atto9">Lindberg, David C.</a> (2003), "The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor", When Science & Christianity Meet, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Frederick_Mayer/tp1ANJjo">Mayer, Frederick</a> (1966), A History of Educational Thought, 2nd ed., <a href="/facts/Columbus%2c_Ohio/mREa53Ub">Columbus</a>: Charles E. Merrill Books.</li>
<li>Molland, George (1997), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PP17">"Roger Bacon's Knowledge of Mathematics"</a>, <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC">Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays</a>, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 151–174, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 90-04-10015-6.</li>
<li>Murphy, James J. (1974), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8B5z0MiRnJ8C">Rhetoric in the Middle Ages: A History of Rhetorical Theory from St. Augustine to the Renaissance</a>, Berkeley: University of California Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-520-04406-1.</li>
<li>Needham, Joseph; et al. (1987), Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V, Pt. 7, <a href="/facts/Cambridge%2c_England/gNRdbmwK">Cambridge</a>: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-30358-3.</li>
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<li><a href="/facts/William_R._Newman/8BggGTWv">Newman, William R.</a> (1997), "An overview of Roger Bacon's Alchemy", <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC">Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays</a>, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 90-04-10015-6.</li>
<li>North, John D. (1983), "The Western Calendar: – 'Intolerabilis, Horribilis, et Derisibilis': Four Centuries of Discontent"", <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gp5-AAAAIAAJ">Gregorian Reform of the Calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican conference to commemorate its 400th anniversary</a>, Vatican City: Specola Vaticana, pp. 75–113.</li>
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<li>Power, A. (2012), Roger Bacon and the Defence of Christendom, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781107531390.</li>
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<li>Sarton, George (1948), Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. III: Science and Learning in the 14th Century, reprinted in 1975 by Robert E. Krieger Publishing, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-88275-172-6 {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help).</li>
<li>Schramm, Matthias (1998), "Experiment in Altertum und Mittelalter", Experimental Essays—Verusche zum Experiment, Zif–Interdisziplinäre Studien, Vol. 3 (in German), Baden-Baden, pp. 34–67{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li>
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<li>Sidelko, Paul L. (March 1996), "The Condemnation of Roger Bacon", Journal of Medieval History, vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 69–81, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0304-4181%2896%2900009-7">10.1016/0304-4181(96)00009-7</a>.</li>
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<li><a href="/facts/Robert_Steele_(medievalist)/W1um6pY2">Steele, Robert</a> (1928), "Luru Vopo Vir Can Utriet", <a href="/facts/Nature_(journal)/XmlJXkFx">Nature</a>, vol. 121, No. 3041, pp. 208–209, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928Natur.121..208S">1928Natur.121..208S</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F121208a0">10.1038/121208a0</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4099471">4099471</a>.</li>
<li>Stillman, John Maxson (1924), Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry, reprinted in 2003 by Kessinger Publishing, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7661-3230-6 {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help).</li>
<li>Thorndike, Lynn (1914), "Roger Bacon and Experimental Method in the Middle Ages", Philosophical Review, vol. 23, pp. 271–298.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Lynn_Thorndike/LheXRckS">Thorndike, Lynn</a> (1915), <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1448175">"Roger Bacon and Gunpowder"</a>, <a href="/facts/Science_(journal)/uTyzjkwD">Science</a>, 42, No. 1092 (1092): 799–800, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1915Sci....42..799T">1915Sci....42..799T</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.42.1092.799-a">10.1126/science.42.1092.799-a</a>, <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17752549">17752549</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5464963">5464963</a>.</li>
<li>Thorndike, Lynn (1916), "The True Roger Bacon", The American Historical Review, vol. 21, pp. 237–57 & 468–80.</li>
<li>Vance, J.G. (July 1914), <a href="https://archive.org/stream/dublinreview155londuoft#page/256/mode/2up">"Roger Bacon, 1214–1914"</a>, The Dublin Review, Vol. CLV.</li>
<li>Whewell, William (1858), "Roger Bacon and the Sciences", History of the Inductive Sciences from the Earliest Times to the Present Times, Vol. 1, New York: D. Appleton & Co..</li>
<li>Williams, Steven J. (1997), "Roger Bacon and the Secret of Secrets", <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC">Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays</a>, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 365–374, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 90-04-10015-6.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Anthony_Wood_(antiquary)/w0QsglG5">Wood, Antony</a> (1786), <a href="https://archive.org/stream/historyantiquiti00wood#page/n5/mode/2up">The History and Antiquities of the Colleges and Halls in the University of Oxford</a>, Oxford: Clarendon Press.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Anthony_Wood_(antiquary)/w0QsglG5">Wood, Anthony à</a> (1796), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0gYVAAAAQAAJ">The History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford, Vol. II</a>, Oxford.</li>
<li>Zambelli, Paola (2007), White Magic, Black Magic in the European Renaissance, Leiden: Brill, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-16098-9.</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roger Bacon.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Roger Bacon.

<a href="/facts/Wikisource/TrMdylNf">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about:Roger Bacon

<ul><li>Hackett, Jeremiah. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/">"Roger Bacon"</a>. In <a href="/facts/Edward_N._Zalta/U8JxHaaA">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a href="/facts/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy/LDuL5HW4">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b08m8z2w">"Roger Bacon" – In Our Time 2017</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/bacon-ro">"Roger Bacon"</a>. <a href="/facts/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy/tmS0Sylv">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/bacon-la">"Roger Bacon on Language"</a>. <a href="/facts/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy/tmS0Sylv">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</li>
<li>Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913), <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Roger_Bacon">"Roger Bacon" </a>, <a href="/facts/Catholic_Encyclopedia/GKufVzBf">Catholic Encyclopedia</a>, New York: Robert Appleton Company</li>
<li><a href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=79&letter=B">1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia: Bacon, Roger</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070714015552/http://mathdl.maa.org/convergence/1/?pa=quote&sa=browseQuotesFrontEnd&sortLetter=b">Roger Bacon Quotes</a> at <a href="http://mathdl.maa.org/convergence/1/">Convergence</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/bacon2.html">Roger Bacon: On Experimental Science, 1268</a></li>
<li>O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/facts/Edmund_F._Robertson/jQMcnY79">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Bacon.html">"Roger Bacon"</a>, <a href="/facts/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive/xtwLmN5q">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a>, <a href="/facts/University_of_St_Andrews/IwXjmljw">University of St Andrews</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.levity.com/alchemy/rbacon.html">Brehm, Edmund A., "Roger Bacon's Place in the History of Alchemy"</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.britannica.com/biography/Roger-Bacon">"Roger-Bacon"</a>. Britannica Encyclopedia. January 2024.</li>
<li><a href="https://i.pinimg.com/736x/e2/ba/0e/e2ba0e78be05d6431464050bb5609867--medieval-philosophy-roger-bacon.jpg">classic wood engraving of Roger Bacon's visage, appears in Munson and Taylor's "Jane's History of Aviation" c.1972</a></li>
<li><a href="https://librivox.org/author/12734">Works by Roger Bacon</a> at <a href="/facts/LibriVox/FF71kJKC">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) </li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"Bacon" Archived 15 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine entry in Collins English Dictionary. <a href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bacon" target="_blank">https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bacon</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Ackerman (1978), p. 119. - Ackerman, James S. (1978), "Leonardo's Eye", Journal of the Warburg & Courtauld Institutes, vol. 41 <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">"Who is Roger Bacon?". Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2019. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210907170223/http://www.rogerbaconacademy.net/leadership/who-is-roger-bacon/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20210907170223/http://www.rogerbaconacademy.net/leadership/who-is-roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">MSTM (2005). - "Roger Bacon", Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, 2005, p. 71, ISBN 978-0-415-96930-7 <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §1. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Hackett (1997), "Life", p. 10. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">James (1928). - James, R.R. (1928), "The Father of British Optics: Roger Bacon, c. 1214–1294", British Journal of Ophthalmology, vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 1–14, doi:10.1136/bjo.12.1.1, PMC 511940, PMID 18168687 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbjo.12.1.1" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbjo.12.1.1</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Hackett (1997), "Life", p. 11. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2008. <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Roger_Bacon.aspx" target="_blank">http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Roger_Bacon.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Hackett (1997), "Life", p. 9. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Hackett (1997), "Life", pp. 10–11. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Encyclopædia Britannica (1878), p. 218. - "Roger Bacon" , Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 3 (9th ed.), 1878, pp. 218–221 <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon" target="_blank">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Bacon has been claimed as an alumnus by both Merton and Brasenose, despite having attended before the establishment of the collegiate system.[15] <a href="/wiki/Merton_College,_Oxford" target="_blank">/wiki/Merton_College,_Oxford</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Hackett (1997), "Life", p. 10. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Hackett (1997), "Life", p. 12. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Paris, Chron. Maj., Vol. III, pp. 244–245. <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Paris" target="_blank">/wiki/Matthew_Paris</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Hackett (1997), "Life", pp. 13–14. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), Intro.. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Hackett (1997), "Life", p. 14. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Hackett (1997), "Life", p. 14. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Hackett (1997), "Life", p. 15. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), Intro.. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Hackett (1997), "Life", p. 9. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Clegg (2003), p. 63. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Though probably granting it to a partisan of their own cause, rather than razing it to the ground as is sometimes reported.[23] <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Encyclopædia Britannica (1878), p. 220. - "Roger Bacon" , Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 3 (9th ed.), 1878, pp. 218–221 <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon" target="_blank">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Hackett (1997), "Life", pp. 13–17. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Clegg (2003), p. 62. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Clegg (2003), p. 62. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Clegg (2003), p. 63. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Clegg (2003), p. 64. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Clegg (2003), p. 64. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Clegg (2003), p. 64. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Hackett (1997), "Life", pp. 17–19. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Hackett (1997), "Life", pp. 17–19. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">It is still uncertain whether the Opus Tertium was sent with the others or kept for further revision and development.[19] <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Clegg (2003), p. 67. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Encyclopædia Britannica (1878), p. 220. - "Roger Bacon" , Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 3 (9th ed.), 1878, pp. 218–221 <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon" target="_blank">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">Chronicle of the 24 Generals, late 14th century. <a href="/wiki/Chronicle_of_the_24_Generals" target="_blank">/wiki/Chronicle_of_the_24_Generals</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Maloney (1988), p. 8. - Bacon, Roger (1988), Maloney, Thomas S. (ed.), Compendium of the Study of Theology: Edition and Translation with Introduction and Notes, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 20 (in Latin and English), Leiden: E.J. Brill, ISBN 90-04-08510-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fx84AAAAIAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fx84AAAAIAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Lindberg (1995), p. 70. - Lindberg, David C. (1995), "Medieval Science and Its Religious Context", Osiris, vol. 10, No. 10, Saint Catherines Press, The University of Chicago Press, The History of Science Society, pp. 60–79, doi:10.1086/368743, JSTOR 301913, S2CID 144193487 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368743" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368743</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Shank (2009), p. 21. - Shank, Michael H. (2009), Galileo Goes to Jail, and Other Myths about Science and Religion, Cambridge: Harvard University Press <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Lindberg (1995), p. 70. - Lindberg, David C. (1995), "Medieval Science and Its Religious Context", Osiris, vol. 10, No. 10, Saint Catherines Press, The University of Chicago Press, The History of Science Society, pp. 60–79, doi:10.1086/368743, JSTOR 301913, S2CID 144193487 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368743" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368743</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Sidelko (1996). - Sidelko, Paul L. (March 1996), "The Condemnation of Roger Bacon", Journal of Medieval History, vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 69–81, doi:10.1016/0304-4181(96)00009-7 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0304-4181%2896%2900009-7" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0304-4181%2896%2900009-7</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Maloney (1988), p. 8. - Bacon, Roger (1988), Maloney, Thomas S. (ed.), Compendium of the Study of Theology: Edition and Translation with Introduction and Notes, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 20 (in Latin and English), Leiden: E.J. Brill, ISBN 90-04-08510-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fx84AAAAIAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fx84AAAAIAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">Lindberg (1995), p. 70. - Lindberg, David C. (1995), "Medieval Science and Its Religious Context", Osiris, vol. 10, No. 10, Saint Catherines Press, The University of Chicago Press, The History of Science Society, pp. 60–79, doi:10.1086/368743, JSTOR 301913, S2CID 144193487 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368743" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1086%2F368743</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">Hackett (1997), "Life", pp. 19–20. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Encyclopædia Britannica (1878), p. 220. - "Roger Bacon" , Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 3 (9th ed.), 1878, pp. 218–221 <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon" target="_blank">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004). - Molland, George (2004). "Bacon, Roger (c.1214–1292?)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/1008. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F1008" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F1008</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">"Biography of Roger Bacon" (PDF). CORE. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 March 2019. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190323105257/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/60548930.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20190323105257/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/60548930.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">In his works, Bacon also refers to it as his "primary writing" (scriptum principale).[26] <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Bacon (1897), Vol. I, Pt. I & (1900), Vol. III, Pt. I. - Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Bacon (1897), Vol. I, Pt. II & (1900), Vol. III, Pt. II. - Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Bacon (1897), Vol. I, Pt. III & (1900), Vol. III, Pt. III. - Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Bacon (1897), Vol. I, Pt. IV - Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Bacon (1897), Vol. II, Pt. V - Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Bacon (1897), Vol. II, Pt. VI - Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">Bacon (1897), Vol. II, Pt. VII - Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">Clegg (2003), p. 66. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">Clegg (2003), p. 66. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Worthies (1828), pp. 45–46 - "Roger Bacon", The Worthies of the United Kingdom; or Biographical Accounts of the Lives of the Most Illustrious Men, in Arts, Arms, Literature, and Science, connected with Great Britain, London: D. Sidney for Knight & Lacey, 1828, pp. 39–48 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjhkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA39" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QjhkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA39</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Worthies (1828), pp. 45–46 - "Roger Bacon", The Worthies of the United Kingdom; or Biographical Accounts of the Lives of the Most Illustrious Men, in Arts, Arms, Literature, and Science, connected with Great Britain, London: D. Sidney for Knight & Lacey, 1828, pp. 39–48 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjhkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA39" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QjhkAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA39</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">Hackett (1997), "Classification", pp. 49–52. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon on the Classification of the Sciences", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 49–66, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">Hackett (1980). - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1980), "The Attitude of Roger Bacon to the Scientia of Albertus Magnus", Albertus Magnus and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studies and Texts, vol. 49, Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, pp. 53–72, ISBN 0-88844-049-9 <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Easton (1952), pp. 210–219. - Easton, Stewart C. (1952), Roger Bacon and His Search for a Universal Science: A Reconsideration of the Life and Work of Roger Bacon in the Light of His Own Stated Purpose, New York: Columbia University Press <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">LeMay (1997), pp. 40–41. - LeMay, Richard (1997), "Roger Bacon's Attitude toward the Latin Translations and Translators of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">Hackett (2011), pp. 151–166. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (2011), "Roger Bacon", The History of Western Philosophy of Religion, vol. 2, Durham: Acumen Publishing Limited, pp. 151–166, ISBN 978-1-84465-464-2 <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">Bacon (1897), Vol. I, Pt. IV - Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Duncan (2011), The Calendar, pp. 1–2 <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Bacon (1897), Vol. I, Pt. IV - Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">North (1983), pp. 75, 82–84. - North, John D. (1983), "The Western Calendar: – 'Intolerabilis, Horribilis, et Derisibilis': Four Centuries of Discontent"", Gregorian Reform of the Calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican conference to commemorate its 400th anniversary, Vatican City: Specola Vaticana, pp. 75–113 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gp5-AAAAIAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gp5-AAAAIAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">Duncan (2011), The Calendar, pp. 1–2 <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">Bacon (1897), Vol. II, Pt. V - Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Ackerman (1978), p. 119. - Ackerman, James S. (1978), "Leonardo's Eye", Journal of the Warburg & Courtauld Institutes, vol. 41 <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Ptolemy (1996), Optics, (Smith trans.), p. 58, ISBN 9780871698629 <a href="9780871698629" target="_blank">9780871698629</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">El-Bizri (2005). - El-Bizri, Nader (2005), "A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen's Optics", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy, vol. 15, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 189–218 <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">Needham, Lu & Wang (1987), pp. 48–50. - Needham, Joseph; et al. (1987), Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V, Pt. 7, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3 <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">"Europeans were prompted by all this to take a closer interest in happenings far to the east. Four years after the invasion of 1241, the pope sent an ambassador to the Great Khan's capital in Mongolia. Other travellers followed later, of whom the most interesting was William of Rubruck (or Ruysbroek). He returned in 1257, and in the following year there are reports of experiments with gunpowder and rockets at Cologne. Then a friend of William of Rubruck, Roger Bacon, gave the first account of gunpowder and its use in fireworks to be written in Europe. A form of gunpowder had been known in China since before AD 900, and as mentioned earlier... Much of this knowledge had reached the Islamic countries by then, and the saltpetre used in making gunpowder there was sometimes referred to, significantly, as 'Chinese snow'."[57] <a href="/wiki/William_of_Rubruck" target="_blank">/wiki/William_of_Rubruck</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">Needham, Lu & Wang (1987), pp. 48–50. - Needham, Joseph; et al. (1987), Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V, Pt. 7, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3 <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">Hodgkinson, William Richard Eaton (1911), "Gunpowder" , in Chisholm, Hugh (ed.), Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Gunpowder" target="_blank">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Gunpowder</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">Thorndike (1915). - Thorndike, Lynn (1915), "Roger Bacon and Gunpowder", Science, 42, No. 1092 (1092): 799–800, Bibcode:1915Sci....42..799T, doi:10.1126/science.42.1092.799-a, PMID 17752549, S2CID 5464963 <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1448175" target="_blank">https://zenodo.org/record/1448175</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">Stillman (1924), p. 202. - Stillman, John Maxson (1924), Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry, reprinted in 2003 by Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7661-3230-6 <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Stillman (1924), p. 202. - Stillman, John Maxson (1924), Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry, reprinted in 2003 by Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7661-3230-6 <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">Steele (1928). - Steele, Robert (1928), "Luru Vopo Vir Can Utriet", Nature, vol. 121, No. 3041, pp. 208–209, Bibcode:1928Natur.121..208S, doi:10.1038/121208a0, S2CID 4099471 <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928Natur.121..208S" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928Natur.121..208S</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">Sarton (1948), p. 958. - Sarton, George (1948), Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. III: Science and Learning in the 14th Century, reprinted in 1975 by Robert E. Krieger Publishing, ISBN 978-0-88275-172-6 <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Needham, Lu & Wang (1987), pp. 48–50. - Needham, Joseph; et al. (1987), Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V, Pt. 7, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3 <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">Needham, Lu & Wang (1987), Vol. V, Pt. 7, p. 358. - Needham, Joseph; et al. (1987), Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V, Pt. 7, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3 <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Hall (1999), p. xxiv. - Hall, Bert S. (1999), "Introduction", James Riddick Partington's History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-5954-0 <a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekfi00part" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekfi00part</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Easton (1952). - Easton, Stewart C. (1952), Roger Bacon and His Search for a Universal Science: A Reconsideration of the Life and Work of Roger Bacon in the Light of His Own Stated Purpose, New York: Columbia University Press <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Williams (1997). - Williams, Steven J. (1997), "Roger Bacon and the Secret of Secrets", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 365–374, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">Williams (1997). - Williams, Steven J. (1997), "Roger Bacon and the Secret of Secrets", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 365–374, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">Williams (1997). - Williams, Steven J. (1997), "Roger Bacon and the Secret of Secrets", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 365–374, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">Bartlett (2008), p. 124. - Bartlett, Robert (2008) [b2006], The Natural and the Supernatural in the Middle Ages: The Wiles Lecture Given at the Queen's University of Belfast, 2006, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-70255-3 <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">Brewer (1859), pp. 523 ff. - Bacon, Roger (1859), Brewer, J.S. (ed.), Opera Quaedam Hactenus Inedita, Vol. I: Opus Tertium, Opus Minus, Compedium Philosophiae, & De Nullitate Magiae, Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages, No. 15 (in Latin and English), London: Eyre & Spottiswoode for Longman, Green, Longman, & Roberts <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50167j/f7.image" target="_blank">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50167j/f7.image</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:104">Zambelli (2007), pp. 48–49. - Zambelli, Paola (2007), White Magic, Black Magic in the European Renaissance, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-16098-9 <a href="#fnref:104" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:105">Bartlett (2008), p. 124. - Bartlett, Robert (2008) [b2006], The Natural and the Supernatural in the Middle Ages: The Wiles Lecture Given at the Queen's University of Belfast, 2006, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-70255-3 <a href="#fnref:105" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:106">Newman (1997), pp. 328–329. - Newman, William R. (1997), "An overview of Roger Bacon's Alchemy", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC</a> <a href="#fnref:106" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:107">Needham, Lu & Wang (1987), pp. 48–50. - Needham, Joseph; et al. (1987), Science and Civilisation in China, vol. V, Pt. 7, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-30358-3 <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:108">Gray (2011), pp. 185–186. - Gray, Douglas (2011), From the Norman Conquest to the Black Death: An Anthology of Writings from England, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-812353-8 <a href="#fnref:108" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:109">Borlik (2011), p. 132. - Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), "'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay", The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-6865-7 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129</a> <a href="#fnref:109" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:110">Smith, David Eugene (1 July 1917). "Medicine and Mathematics in the Sixteenth Century". Ann Med Hist. 1 (2): 125–140. OCLC 12650954. PMC 7927718. PMID 33943138. (here cited p. 126). <a href="/wiki/David_Eugene_Smith" target="_blank">/wiki/David_Eugene_Smith</a> <a href="#fnref:110" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:111">Molland, George (1993). "Roger Bacon and the Hermetic Tradition in Medieval Science". Vivarium. XXXI (1). Brill: 140–160. doi:10.1163/156853493X00123. ISSN 0042-7543. JSTOR 42569882. OCLC 812885091. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:111" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:112">Tobes, Victoria (2019). Roger Bacon: The Christian, the Alchemist, the Enigma (History Honors Program. 12) (PDF). University at Albany, State University of New York. pp. 29–30. Archived from the original on 21 March 2020. the Creator may be known through the knowledge of the creature…to whom service may be rendered…in the beauty of morals. (degree thesis) <a href="https://scholarsarchive.library.albany.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=history_honors" target="_blank">https://scholarsarchive.library.albany.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=history_honors</a> <a href="#fnref:112" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:113">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:113" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:114">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:115">Hovdhaugen (1990), p. 121–122. - Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), "Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar", De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, ISBN 90-272-4526-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:116">Hovdhaugen (1990), p. 121–122. - Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), "Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar", De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, ISBN 90-272-4526-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:117">Hovdhaugen (1990), p. 128. - Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), "Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar", De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, ISBN 90-272-4526-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117</a> <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:118">Hovdhaugen (1990), p. 128. - Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), "Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar", De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, ISBN 90-272-4526-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:119">Hovdhaugen (1990), p. 128. - Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), "Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar", De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, ISBN 90-272-4526-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117</a> <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:120">Hovdhaugen (1990), p. 128. - Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), "Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar", De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, ISBN 90-272-4526-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:121">Hovdhaugen (1990), p. 129. - Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), "Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar", De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, ISBN 90-272-4526-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117</a> <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:122">Hovdhaugen (1990), p. 123. - Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), "Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar", De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, ISBN 90-272-4526-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117</a> <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:123">Latin: Cupiens igitur exponere gramaticam grecam ad vtilitatem latinorum.[80] <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:124">Hovdhaugen (1990), p. 129. - Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), "Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar", De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, ISBN 90-272-4526-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117</a> <a href="#fnref:124" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:125">It has been claimed that the copies of Bacon's grammars which have survived was not their final form, but Hovdhaugen considers that—even if that were the case—the final form would have been similar in scope to the surviving texts and mostly focused on improving a Latinate reader's understanding of texts in translation.[79] <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eva_Hovdhaugen&action=edit&redlink=1" target="_blank">/w/index.php?title=Eva_Hovdhaugen&action=edit&redlink=1</a> <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:126">Murphy (1974), p. 153. - Murphy, James J. (1974), Rhetoric in the Middle Ages: A History of Rhetorical Theory from St. Augustine to the Renaissance, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-04406-1 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8B5z0MiRnJ8C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8B5z0MiRnJ8C</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:127">Murphy (1974), p. 153. - Murphy, James J. (1974), Rhetoric in the Middle Ages: A History of Rhetorical Theory from St. Augustine to the Renaissance, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-04406-1 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8B5z0MiRnJ8C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8B5z0MiRnJ8C</a> <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:128">Nolan,[82] cited in Murphy.[83] <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edmond_Nolan&action=edit&redlink=1" target="_blank">/w/index.php?title=Edmond_Nolan&action=edit&redlink=1</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:129">Latin: ...grammatica vna et eadem est secundum substanciam in omnibus linguis, licet accidentaliter varietur....[80] <a href="/wiki/Latin" target="_blank">/wiki/Latin</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:130">Hovdhaugen (1990), p. 127–128. - Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), "Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar", De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, ISBN 90-272-4526-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:131">Hovdhaugen (1990), p. 127–128. - Hovdhaugen, Eva (1990), "Una et Eadem: Some Observations on Roger Bacon's Greek Grammar", De Ortu Grammaticae: Studies in Medieval Grammar and Linguistic Theory in Memory of Jan Pinborg, Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, Ser. III: Studies in the History of the Language Sciences, No. 43, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, pp. 117–132, ISBN 90-272-4526-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8UxAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:132">Clegg (2003), p. 66. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:133">Clegg (2003), p. 67. - Clegg, Brian (2003), Roger Bacon: The First Scientist, Constable, ISBN 978-147211-212-5 <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:134">Bacon (1897), p. 405–552. - Bacon, Roger (1897), Bridges, John Henry (ed.), The 'Opus Majus' of Roger Bacon (in Latin and English), Oxford: Horace Hart for the Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:135">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §2. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:136">Zwart (2008), Understanding Nature, p. 236 <a href="#fnref:136" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:137">Stillman (1924), p. 271. - Stillman, John Maxson (1924), Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry, reprinted in 2003 by Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7661-3230-6 <a href="#fnref:137" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:138">Newbold & al. (1928). - Newbold, William Romaine; et al. (1928), "Cipher of Roger Bacon", Nature, 122 (3076), republished in 2003 by Kessinger Publishing: 563, Bibcode:1928Natur.122..563S, doi:10.1038/122563a0, ISBN 978-0-7661-7956-1, S2CID 4091762 <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928Natur.122..563S" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928Natur.122..563S</a> <a href="#fnref:138" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:139">Goldstone & al. (2005). - Goldstone, Lawrence; et al., The Friar and the Cipher: Roger Bacon and the Unsolved Mystery of the Most Unusual Manuscript in the World, Doubleday <a href="#fnref:139" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:140">Steele (20 February 2005), "The Bacon Code", NY Times <a href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C03E4DD103AF933A15751C0A9639C8B63&pagewanted=1" target="_blank">https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C03E4DD103AF933A15751C0A9639C8B63&pagewanted=1</a> <a href="#fnref:140" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:141">Thorndike (January 1928), "Review of The Cipher of Roger Bacon", The American Historical Review, vol. 34, No. 2, Oxford University Press, American Historical Association, pp. 317–319, doi:10.2307/1838571, JSTOR 1838571 <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Thorndike" target="_blank">/wiki/Lynn_Thorndike</a> <a href="#fnref:141" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:142">Sarton (September 1928), "Review of The Cipher of Roger Bacon", Isis, vol. 11, No. 1, The University of Chicago Press, The History of Science Society, pp. 141–145, doi:10.1086/346365, JSTOR 224770 <a href="/wiki/George_Sarton" target="_blank">/wiki/George_Sarton</a> <a href="#fnref:142" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:143">Foster (1999), "William Romaine Newbold", American National Biography <a href="/wiki/American_National_Biography" target="_blank">/wiki/American_National_Biography</a> <a href="#fnref:143" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:144">"UA Experts Determine Age of Book 'Nobody Can Read'". University of Arizona. 9 February 2011. Retrieved 3 December 2015. <a href="http://uanews.arizona.edu/story/ua-experts-determine-age-of-book-nobody-can-read" target="_blank">http://uanews.arizona.edu/story/ua-experts-determine-age-of-book-nobody-can-read</a> <a href="#fnref:144" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:145">Encyclopædia Britannica (1878), p. 218. - "Roger Bacon" , Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 3 (9th ed.), 1878, pp. 218–221 <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon" target="_blank">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon</a> <a href="#fnref:145" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:146">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), Intro.. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:146" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:147">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §1. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:147" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:148">Although the manuscript was circulated in by c. 1555, it was not published until 1627.[99] It was republished in the mid-19th century.[100] <a href="#fnref:148" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:149">Fryer Bacon (1627). - Anon. (1627), The Famous Historie of Fryer Bacon: Containing the wonderfull things that he did in his Life: Also the manner of his Death; With the Lives and Deaths of the two Coniurers, Bungye and Vandermast, London: G. Purslowe for F. Grove <a href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/bacon/baconhistory.html" target="_blank">http://penelope.uchicago.edu/bacon/baconhistory.html</a> <a href="#fnref:149" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:150">Borlik (2011), p. 134. - Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), "'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay", The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-6865-7 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129</a> <a href="#fnref:150" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:151">Greene (1594). - Greene, Robert (1594), The Honorable Historie of frier Bacon and frier Bongay, Old English drama. Students' facsimile edition, London: Edward White, reprinted in facsimile in 1914 by The Tudor Facsimile Texts <a href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t6g163q8x;view=2up;seq=6" target="_blank">http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t6g163q8x;view=2up;seq=6</a> <a href="#fnref:151" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:152">Borlik (2011), p. 129. - Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), "'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay", The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-6865-7 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129</a> <a href="#fnref:152" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:153">Kavey (2007), pp. 38–39. - Kavey, Allison (2007), Books of Secrets: Natural Philosophy in England, 1550–1600 <a href="#fnref:153" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:154">Borlik (2011), p. 129. - Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), "'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay", The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-6865-7 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129</a> <a href="#fnref:154" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:155">Browne, Pseud. Epid., Bk. VII, Ch. xvii, §7. Archived 8 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Browne" target="_blank">/wiki/Thomas_Browne</a> <a href="#fnref:155" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:156">Greene, Fr. Bacon, iii.168. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)" target="_blank">/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)</a> <a href="#fnref:156" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:157">Greene, Fr. Bacon, xi.15 & 18. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)" target="_blank">/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)</a> <a href="#fnref:157" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:158">Borlik (2011), p. 134. - Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), "'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay", The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-6865-7 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129</a> <a href="#fnref:158" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:159">Greene, Fr. Bacon, xi.52. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)" target="_blank">/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)</a> <a href="#fnref:159" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:160">Greene, Fr. Bacon, ix.53–73. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)" target="_blank">/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)</a> <a href="#fnref:160" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:161">Greene, Fr. Bacon, ix.72. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)" target="_blank">/wiki/Robert_Greene_(dramatist)</a> <a href="#fnref:161" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:162">Malmesbury, Chron., Bk. II., Ch. x., p. 181. <a href="/wiki/William_of_Malmesbury" target="_blank">/wiki/William_of_Malmesbury</a> <a href="#fnref:162" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:163">Malmesbury even notes that "probably some may regard all this as a fiction, because the vulgar are used to undermine the fame of scholars, saying that the man who excels in any admirable science, holds converse with the devil"[113] but professes himself willing to believe the stories about Sylvester because of the (spurious) accounts he had of the pope's "shameful end".[114] <a href="/wiki/William_of_Malmesbury" target="_blank">/wiki/William_of_Malmesbury</a> <a href="#fnref:163" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:164">Browne, Pseud. Epid., Bk. VII, Ch. xvii, §7. Archived 8 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Browne" target="_blank">/wiki/Thomas_Browne</a> <a href="#fnref:164" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:165">Borlik (2011), p. 138. - Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), "'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay", The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-6865-7 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129</a> <a href="#fnref:165" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:166">Bacon, De Null. Mag., 29. <a href="/wiki/De_Nullitate_Magiae" target="_blank">/wiki/De_Nullitate_Magiae</a> <a href="#fnref:166" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:167">Borlik (2011), p. 132–4. - Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), "'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay", The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-6865-7 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129</a> <a href="#fnref:167" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:168">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §1. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:168" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:169">Whewell (1858). - Whewell, William (1858), "Roger Bacon and the Sciences", History of the Inductive Sciences from the Earliest Times to the Present Times, Vol. 1, New York: D. Appleton & Co. <a href="#fnref:169" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:170">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §1. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:170" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:171">Encyclopædia Britannica (1878), p. 218. - "Roger Bacon" , Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 3 (9th ed.), 1878, pp. 218–221 <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon" target="_blank">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Roger_Bacon</a> <a href="#fnref:171" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:172">Bacon, Opus Majus, Bk.&VI. <a href="#fnref:172" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:173">Borlik (2011), p. 132. - Borlik, Todd Andrew (2011), "'More than Art': Clockwork Automata, the Extemporizing Actor, and the Brazen Head in Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay", The Automaton in English Renaissance Literature, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-6865-7 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=c_ShAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129</a> <a href="#fnref:173" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:174">Hackett (1997), "Scientia Experimentalis", p. 279. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon on Scientia Experimentalis", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 277–316, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA277" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA277</a> <a href="#fnref:174" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:175">E.g., Clegg's 2003 treatment of Roger Bacon, entitled The First Scientist.[121][122][92] <a href="/wiki/Brian_Clegg_(writer)" target="_blank">/wiki/Brian_Clegg_(writer)</a> <a href="#fnref:175" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:176">Gray (2011), p. 184. - Gray, Douglas (2011), From the Norman Conquest to the Black Death: An Anthology of Writings from England, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-812353-8 <a href="#fnref:176" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:177">Mayer (1966), pp. 500–501. - Mayer, Frederick (1966), A History of Educational Thought, 2nd ed., Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Books <a href="#fnref:177" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:178">Wells, H. G., The Outline of History, Vol. 2, Ch. 33, §6, p. 638 (New York 1971) ("updated" by Raymond Postgate and G. P. Wells). <a href="https://archive.org/details/hgwellsoutlinehistoryvol2/page/638/mode/1up?view=theater" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/hgwellsoutlinehistoryvol2/page/638/mode/1up?view=theater</a> <a href="#fnref:178" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:179">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §1. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:179" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:180">Crombie (1953). - Crombie, Alistair Cameron (1953), Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science, 100–1700, Oxford: Clarendon Press <a href="#fnref:180" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:181">Kuhn (1976). - Kuhn, Thomas S. (1976), "Mathematical vs. Experimental Traditions in the Development of Physical Science", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, vol. VII, No. 1, Summer, pp. 1–31 <a href="#fnref:181" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:182">Schramm (1998). - Schramm, Matthias (1998), "Experiment in Altertum und Mittelalter", Experimental Essays—Verusche zum Experiment, Zif–Interdisziplinäre Studien, Vol. 3 (in German), Baden-Baden, pp. 34–67 <a href="#fnref:182" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:183">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2013), §1. - "Roger Bacon", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 2013 <a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/" target="_blank">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/roger-bacon/</a> <a href="#fnref:183" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:184">Duhem (1915), p. 442. - Duhem, Pierre (1915), Le Système du Monde: Histoire des Doctrines Cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic, Vol. III (in French) <a href="#fnref:184" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:185">Thorndike (1914). - Thorndike, Lynn (1914), "Roger Bacon and Experimental Method in the Middle Ages", Philosophical Review, vol. 23, pp. 271–298 <a href="#fnref:185" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:186">Thorndike (1916). - Thorndike, Lynn (1916), "The True Roger Bacon", The American Historical Review, vol. 21, pp. 237–57 & 468–80 <a href="#fnref:186" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:187">Hackett (1997), "Scientia Experimentalis", p. 280. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon on Scientia Experimentalis", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 277–316, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA277" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA277</a> <a href="#fnref:187" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:188">Koyré (1957). - Koyré, Alexander (1957), "The Origins of Modern Science: A New Interpretation", Diogenes, vol. 4, pp. 421–448 <a href="#fnref:188" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:189">Hackett (1997), "Scientia Experimentalis", p. 280. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon on Scientia Experimentalis", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 277–316, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA277" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA277</a> <a href="#fnref:189" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:190">Lindberg (1996), p. lv. - Bacon, Roger (1996), Lindberg, David C. (ed.), Roger Bacon and the Origins of Perspectiva in the Middle Ages: A Critical Edition and English Translation of Bacon's Perspectiva with Introduction and Notes (in Latin and English), Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-823992-0 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jSPHMKbjYkQC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=jSPHMKbjYkQC</a> <a href="#fnref:190" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:191">Hackett (1997), "Scientia Experimentalis", pp. 279–284. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon on Scientia Experimentalis", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 277–316, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA277" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA277</a> <a href="#fnref:191" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:192">Hackett (1997), "Life", pp. 11–12. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:192" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:193">Crombie (1990), p. 129. - Crombie, Alistair Cameron (1990), "Science, Optics, and Music in Medieval and Early Modern Thought", Medical History, 36 (1), Continuum Int'l Publishing: 119, ISBN 978-0-907628-79-8, PMC 1036552 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1036552" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1036552</a> <a href="#fnref:193" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:194">Gauch (2003), p. 222. - Gauch, Hugh G. (2003), Scientific Method in Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-01708-4 <a href="#fnref:194" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:195">Brewer (1859). - Bacon, Roger (1859), Brewer, J.S. (ed.), Opera Quaedam Hactenus Inedita, Vol. I: Opus Tertium, Opus Minus, Compedium Philosophiae, & De Nullitate Magiae, Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages, No. 15 (in Latin and English), London: Eyre & Spottiswoode for Longman, Green, Longman, & Roberts <a href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50167j/f7.image" target="_blank">http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k50167j/f7.image</a> <a href="#fnref:195" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:196">Wood (1786), p. 38. - Wood, Antony (1786), The History and Antiquities of the Colleges and Halls in the University of Oxford, Oxford: Clarendon Press <a href="https://archive.org/stream/historyantiquiti00wood#page/n5/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/stream/historyantiquiti00wood#page/n5/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:196" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:197">Turner (2010), North Pole, South Pole <a href="#fnref:197" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:198">Molland (1997). - Molland, George (1997), "Roger Bacon's Knowledge of Mathematics", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 151–174, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PP17" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PP17</a> <a href="#fnref:198" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:199">Hackett (1997), "Life", pp. 11–12. - Hackett, Jeremiah M.G. (1997), "Roger Bacon: His Life, Career, and Works", Roger Bacon and the Sciences: Commemorative Essays, Studien und Texte zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, No. 57, Leiden: Brill, pp. 9–24, ISBN 90-04-10015-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Gy3Vp7TurVUC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:199" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:200">Lindberg (2003). - Lindberg, David C. (2003), "The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor", When Science & Christianity Meet, Chicago: University of Chicago Press <a href="#fnref:200" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:201">"If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed in the Age of Reason, they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities."[145] <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" target="_blank">/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment</a> <a href="#fnref:201" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:202">Gauch (2003), p. 51. - Gauch, Hugh G. (2003), Scientific Method in Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-01708-4 <a href="#fnref:202" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:203">Lindberg (1987), p. 520. - Lindberg, David C. (1987), "Science as Handmaiden: Roger Bacon and the Patristic Tradition", Isis: A Journal of the History of Science, vol. 78, pp. 518–536, doi:10.1086/354550, S2CID 145569406 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F354550" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1086%2F354550</a> <a href="#fnref:203" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:204">Power (2006). - Power, A. (2006), "A Mirror for Every Age: The Reputation of Roger Bacon", The English Historical Review, vol. 121, No. 492, pp. 657–692, doi:10.1093/ehr/cel102, archived from the original on 22 July 2005 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050722181318/http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20050722181318/http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/</a> <a href="#fnref:204" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:205">Peirce, Charles Sanders (1877), The Fixation of Belief <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" target="_blank">/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce</a> <a href="#fnref:205" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:206">Porterfield, A. (2006). The Protestant Experience in America. American religious experience. Greenwood Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-313-32801-5. Retrieved 29 May 2023. <a href="978-0-313-32801-5" target="_blank">978-0-313-32801-5</a> <a href="#fnref:206" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:207">Smith (2010), "Bacon Friar". - Smith, Richard O. (2010), Oxford Student Pranks: A History of Mischief & Mayhem, Stroud: History Press, ISBN 978-0-7509-5405-1 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JAE7AwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=JAE7AwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:207" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:208">Thacker (1909), The Stripling Thames, vol. Ch. 2 <a href="http://thames.me.uk/0TST/t00020.htm" target="_blank">http://thames.me.uk/0TST/t00020.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:208" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:209">C. (August 1829), "Friar Bacon's, or Folly Bridge, Oxford", Gentleman's Magazine, p. 105 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IvdfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA105" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IvdfAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA105</a> <a href="#fnref:209" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:210">Smith (2010), "Bacon Friar". - Smith, Richard O. (2010), Oxford Student Pranks: A History of Mischief & Mayhem, Stroud: History Press, ISBN 978-0-7509-5405-1 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JAE7AwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=JAE7AwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:210" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:211">Erskine (1914). - Erskine, John (1914), A Pageant of the Thirteenth Century, New York: Columbia University Press <a href="#fnref:211" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:212">Baker (1933), Dramatic Bibliography, p. 180 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4iL0a2rQzsgC&pg=PA180" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4iL0a2rQzsgC&pg=PA180</a> <a href="#fnref:212" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:213">Blish (1964). - Blish, James (1964), Doctor Mirabilis: A Vision, New English Library <a href="#fnref:213" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:214">"Roger Bacon". The Black Rose. Google Sites. Retrieved 27 April 2014. <a href="https://sites.google.com/site/lis763theblackrose/for-history-buffs/roger-bacon" target="_blank">https://sites.google.com/site/lis763theblackrose/for-history-buffs/roger-bacon</a> <a href="#fnref:214" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:215">"The Black Rose". Brandeis University. Archived from the original on 28 April 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2014. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140428004449/http://unsworth.unet.brandeis.edu/courses/bestsellers/search.cgi?title=The+Black+Rose" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20140428004449/http://unsworth.unet.brandeis.edu/courses/bestsellers/search.cgi?title=The+Black+Rose</a> <a href="#fnref:215" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:216">Scult, A. (1985), "Book Reviews", The Quarterly Journal of Speech, vol. 71, No. 4, pp. 489–506, doi:10.1080/00335638509383751 <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:216" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:217">Baldwin (1905). - Baldwin, James (1905), Thirty More Famous Stories Retold, Cincinnati: American Book Co. <a href="#fnref:217" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:218">Anders, Charlie Jane (18 May 2009), "Walt Whitman's Best Friend Wrote the First Robot Revolution Story", io9 <a href="http://io9.com/5260116/walt-whitmans-best-friend-wrote-the-first-robot-revolution-story" target="_blank">http://io9.com/5260116/walt-whitmans-best-friend-wrote-the-first-robot-revolution-story</a> <a href="#fnref:218" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:219">O'Conner, "The Brazen Android" (audiobook hosted at Internet Archive). <a href="/wiki/William_Douglas_O%27Connor" target="_blank">/wiki/William_Douglas_O%27Connor</a> <a href="#fnref:219" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:220">"Fifth Business". Study Mode. Retrieved 27 April 2014. <a href="http://www.studymode.com/essays/Fifth-Business-8315.html" target="_blank">http://www.studymode.com/essays/Fifth-Business-8315.html</a> <a href="#fnref:220" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Roger Bacon open-in-new

Roger Bacon