Gaetuli

<h2 id="region">Region</h2>

Getulia was the name given to an ancient district in the <a href="/facts/Maghreb/oIcU24Mz">Maghreb</a>, which in the usage of Roman writers comprised the nomadic Berber tribes of the southern slopes of the <a href="/facts/Aures_Mountains/Q7qSAtN1">Aures Mountains</a> and <a href="/facts/Atlas_Mountains/qN0j2DDy">Atlas Mountains</a>, as far as the <a href="/facts/Atlantic/EI4uChIb">Atlantic</a>, and the oases in the northern part of the <a href="/facts/Sahara/JVlJd2VC">Sahara</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a> The Gaetulian people were among the oldest inhabitants in northwestern Africa recorded in classical writings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> They mainly occupied the area of modern-day <a href="/facts/Algeria/UXDF4Tj6">Algeria</a> as far north as Gigthis in the southwestern region of <a href="/facts/Tunisia/4uC8Po6k">Tunisia</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> and Southern <a href="/facts/Tripolitania/1hvEXyjN">Tripolitania</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> They were bordered by the <a href="/facts/Garamantes/VmyIbqqr">Garamantes</a> people to the east and were under the coastal Libyes people.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> The coastal region of Mauritania was above them and, although they shared many similar characteristics, were distinct from the Mauri people that inhabited it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> The Gaetulians were exposed to the conditions of the harsh African interior near the <a href="/facts/Sahara/JVlJd2VC">Sahara</a> and produced skillful hardened warriors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> They were known for horse rearing, and according to <a href="/facts/Strabo/dzQ59zwn">Strabo</a> had 100,000 foals in a single year. They were clad in skins, lived on meat and milk, and the only manufacture connected with their name is that of the purple dye that became famous from the time of <a href="/facts/Caesar_Augustus/RGfMCR2V">Augustus</a>, and was made from the purple shellfish <a href="/facts/Murex/UX1nJBU1">Murex brandaris</a> found on the coast, apparently both in the Syrtes and on the Atlantic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>

<h2 id="roman-perceptions">Roman perceptions</h2>

The writings of several ancient Roman histories, most notably <a href="/facts/Sallust/qnl8p8WX">Sallust</a>, depict the various indigenous North African tribes as a uniform state and refer to them collectively as the <a href="/facts/Ancient_Libya/e9PH00W3">Libyans</a> and Gaetuli.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> At the beginning of Roman colonization in North Africa, Sallust writes that the Gaetuli were ignarum nominis Romani (Iug. 80.1), ignorant of the Roman name.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> <a href="/facts/Sallust/qnl8p8WX">Sallust</a> also describes the Libyans and Gaetuli as a "rude and uncivilized folk" who were "governed neither by institutions nor law, nor were they subject to anyone’s rule."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>
Later accounts contradict that description. <a href="/facts/Pliny_the_Elder/grx67ghR">Pliny the Elder</a> claims that the Gaetuli were essentially different from other indigenous North African <a href="/facts/Numidian/ErVpEwob">Numidian</a> tribes despite sharing the same language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> Contemporary historians acknowledge the significant ethnic divisions between the Berber tribes and the existence of individual kings and separate political spheres.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
 
Roman records of the Gaetuli first emerge during the <a href="/facts/Jugurthine_War/v23nIRRr">Jugurthine War</a> when the group of tribes served as an auxiliary force in <a href="/facts/Jugurtha/VEu0C5EQ">Jugurtha</a>’s army against the Romans. This was the first recorded contact between the Romans and the Gaetuli and is the earliest Roman record of the tribes. During the <a href="/facts/Jugurthine_War/v23nIRRr">Jugurthine War</a> the Gaetuli attacked and harassed Roman forces and possessed cavalry regiments that provided a significant challenge to the Roman legions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> After a truce negotiated between the <a href="/facts/Numidians/kk2tfMBA">Numidians</a> and the Romans led to the end of the war the Gaetuli forces were disbanded.
Gaetulian forces next appear as forces loyal to <a href="/facts/Gaius_Marius/a9eYsWax">Gaius Marius</a> during the <a href="/facts/Bellum_Octavianum/N43T1wYq">Bellum Octavianum</a>, a civil war in 87 BC. Possibly in return for land the Gaetulian forces fought for Marius against <a href="/facts/Gnaeus_Octavius_(consul_87_BC)/gCeK6mHX">Gnaeus Octavius</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> After almost 90 years of documented peace between the Gaetuli and Rome the tribes invaded the Roman occupied area in what became known as the "Gaetulian War" in 3 AD. Some historians describe the war more as an uprising that occurred as a result of possible land incursions and Roman mandated control of the movement of the semi-nomadic Gaetuli. In response to the attack, forces led by <a href="/facts/Cossus_Cornelius_Lentulus_Gaetulicus_(consul_1_BC)/khPFfuNk">Cossus Cornelius Lentulus</a> were dispatched to put down the invasion which they successfully accomplished in 6 A.D.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> Cossus Cornelius Lentulus was given the surname Gaetulicus for his successful campaign.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>
In 17 AD the <a href="/facts/Musulamii/pCBrSX7s">Musulamii</a> tribe, a Gaetulian sub-tribe led by <a href="/facts/Tacfarinas/WbR73mdT">Tacfarinas</a>, fought back against the Romans over the building of a road across Musulamii territory by the <a href="/facts/Legio_III_Augusta/mCfhxzFQ">Legio III Augusta</a>. The <a href="/facts/Musulamii/pCBrSX7s">Musulamii</a> were joined in the conflict against the Romans by the Gaetuli and the neighboring <a href="/facts/Garamantes/VmyIbqqr">Garamantes</a>. This was the largest war in the <a href="/facts/Algeria/UXDF4Tj6">Algeria</a> region of <a href="/facts/Africa_(Roman_province)/MIYYrhIF">Roman Africa</a> in the history of Roman occupation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> After the defeat of the <a href="/facts/Musulamii/pCBrSX7s">Musulamii</a> the Gaetuli ceased to appear in Roman military record. Further records of the Gaetuli indicate that soldiers from the tribes served as auxiliary forces in the Roman army, while the tribes themselves provided the Empire with a range of exotic animals and purple dye among other goods through trade. Records indicate that many of the animals used in Roman games were acquired through trade connections with the Gaetuli.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>

<h2 id="culture">Culture</h2>
<h3>Lifestyle</h3>
The region of Gaetulia hosted a multitude of climates and thus forced the Gaetulian tribes to adopt several different means of habitation. They are documented living in huts, presumably in the more mountainous, inland portions of Gaetulia and also under the hulls of overturned ships in the coastal regions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> The mobility and varying living styles likely contributed to the difficulty of Roman historians to accurately define the Gaetuli in both a political and cultural sense.
<a href="/facts/Sallust/qnl8p8WX">Sallust</a> and <a href="/facts/Pliny_the_Elder/grx67ghR">Pliny the Elder</a> both mention the warlike tendencies of the Gaetuli, which is supported by the frequent accounts of Gaetuli invasions. These accounts appear to demonstrate that the Gaetuli did not discriminate in their targets, as they are recorded invaded both Roman territories as well as other Numidian tribes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a>
The Gaetuli frequently intermarried with other tribes. <a href="/facts/Apuleius/uVqvP52s">Apuleius</a> references his semi-Gaetulian, semi-Numidian heritage in his Apologia (c. 170 CE).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> Sallust also mentions that the Gaetuli intermarried with the <a href="/facts/Persian_people/4GhM3jl2">Persians</a> and gradually merged with them, becoming <a href="/facts/Nomad/R9KGKP72">nomads</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a>

<h3>Economy</h3>
Given their nomadic nature, the Gaetuli were largely self-sufficient. According to <a href="/facts/Sallust/qnl8p8WX">Sallust</a> the Gaetuli would feed "on the flesh of wild animals and on the fruits of the earth."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> Following the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Carthage_(c._149_BC)/uAtQzw6b">Battle of Carthage (c. 149 BC)</a>, Roman merchants were able to increase contact with the indigenous Berber tribes and establish trade.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>
In <a href="/facts/Deipnosophistae/tL98IcPt">Deipnosophistae</a>, <a href="/facts/Athenaeus/qDV1DyQ9">Athenaeus</a> mentions several desired crops native to the <a href="/facts/Numidia/ErVpEwob">Numidia</a> and Gaetulia regions. The Gaetuli grew and traded <a href="/facts/Asparagus/MoI6GaCN">asparagus</a> which was "the thickness of a Cyprian reed, and twelve feet long".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a>
Roman colonies in Gaetulia primarily exchanged goods with the Gaetuli for <a href="/facts/Murex/UX1nJBU1">murex</a>, an indigenous shellfish on the Gaetulia coastline (used to create purple dye) and for the exotic fauna native to the region, notably lions, gazelles and tigers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> In Horace's <a href="/facts/Odes_(Horace)/p7zGHUJC">Odes</a>, the image of a Gaetulian lion is used to symbolize a great threat.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> The ferocity and great size of Gaetulian lions contributed to their status as a luxury commodity and Rome is recorded to have imported many to Italy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a>

<h3>Religion</h3>
In <a href="/facts/Roman_mythology/sA0FnmbG">Roman mythology</a>, <a href="/facts/Iarbas/udhGpffo">Iarbas</a> was the son of a North African god, <a href="/facts/Jupiter_(mythology)/JPetM2m9">Jupiter</a> <a href="/facts/Amun/e9HKGJJj">Hammon</a>, and a <a href="/facts/Garamantes/VmyIbqqr">Garamantian</a> <a href="/facts/Nymph/IfccICyh">nymph</a>. Iarbas became the first king of Gaetuli. In <a href="/facts/Virgil/K9zjwwHS">Virgil</a>'s <a href="/facts/Aeneid/s75oF7LS">Aeneid</a>, Iarbas falls in love with the <a href="/facts/Punics/FLAl3pXD">Carthaginian</a> queen <a href="/facts/Dido/syo8Iupp">Dido</a>, but is rejected as Dido prefers the suitor <a href="/facts/Aeneas/TvWwJQEL">Aeneas</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a>
From the period of <a href="/facts/Late_Antiquity/sPTl0dyD">Late Antiquity</a> until the <a href="/facts/Early_Muslim_conquests/HyPkljcc">Islamic conquests</a>, it can be speculated that at least a portion of the Gaetuli converted to <a href="/facts/Nicene_Christianity/kcjvCVsB">Nicene Christianity</a> or heresies thereof such as <a href="/facts/Donatism/tGq7PbL4">Donatism</a>, like other Christian Berber tribes.

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Gaetulian_lion/asHFL2J3">Gaetulian lion</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2>
<ul><li>Cherry, David (1998). Frontier and Society in Roman North Africa. Oxford University Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</li>
<li> This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/facts/Public_domain/YWKMDKw4">public domain</a>: <a href="/facts/Hugh_Chisholm/2vWblUBe">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "Gaetulia". <a href="/facts/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition/mPElbCRY">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 385–386.</li>
<li>Fage, J. D., ed. (1979). The Cambridge History of Africa. Vol. 2 (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li>
<li>Fishwick, Duncan; Shaw, Brent D. (1976). "Ptolemy of Mauretania and the Conspiracy of Gaetulicus". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 25 (4): 491–494. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4435530">4435530</a>.</li>
<li>Lee, Benjamin Todd; Finkelpearl, Ellen & Graverini, Luca, eds. (2014). Apuleius and Africa. Routledge Press. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)</li>
<li>Pliny the Elder (1855). <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0137">The Natural History</a>. Translated by John Bostock; H.T. Riley. London: Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street – via Perseus.</li>
<li>Sallust (1899). The Jugurthine War. Translated by Rev. John Selby Watson, M.A. New York and London: Harper & Brothers.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Desanges, J. (1990). "Autolatae / Autololes / Autoteles". Encyclopédie berbère (in French). Vol. 8. pp. 1175–1176. doi:10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.154. <a href="https://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/154" target="_blank">https://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/154</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Camps, G. (1999). "Gudâla/Guezula". Encyclopédie berbère (in French). Vol. 21. pp. 3223–3224. doi:10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.1788. Retrieved 18 September 2020. <a href="http://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/1788" target="_blank">http://journals.openedition.org/encyclopedieberbere/1788</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Chisholm 1911, p. 385. - Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Gaetulia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 385–386. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">MacLean, Hector (1872). "On the Kimmerian and Atlantean Races". The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 1: xl–lxi. doi:10.2307/2841286. JSTOR 2841286. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Pliny the Elder 1855. - Pliny the Elder (1855). The Natural History. Translated by John Bostock; H.T. Riley. London: Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street – via Perseus. <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0137" target="_blank">http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0137</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Bruce Hitchner, R. (29 March 2022). a Companion to North Africa in Antiquity. John Wiley & Sons. p. 75. ISBN 9781444350012. <a href="9781444350012" target="_blank">9781444350012</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Strabo. Geography. Vol. Book II, Chapter V. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Morstein-Marx, Robert (2001). "The Myth of Numidian Origins in Sallust's African Excursus (Iugurtha 17.7-18.12)". The American Journal of Philology. 122 (2): 179–200. doi:10.1353/ajp.2001.0026. S2CID 162375634. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Pliny the Elder 1855. - Pliny the Elder (1855). The Natural History. Translated by John Bostock; H.T. Riley. London: Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street – via Perseus. <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0137" target="_blank">http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0137</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Morstein-Marx, Robert (2001). "The Myth of Numidian Origins in Sallust's African Excursus (Iugurtha 17.7-18.12)". The American Journal of Philology. 122 (2): 179–200. doi:10.1353/ajp.2001.0026. S2CID 162375634. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Chisholm 1911, p. 385. - Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Gaetulia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 385–386. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Fage 1979. - Fage, J. D., ed. (1979). The Cambridge History of Africa. Vol. 2 (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Sallust 1899, ch. 80. - Sallust (1899). The Jugurthine War. Translated by Rev. John Selby Watson, M.A. New York and London: Harper & Brothers. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Sallust 1899, ch. 17. - Sallust (1899). The Jugurthine War. Translated by Rev. John Selby Watson, M.A. New York and London: Harper & Brothers. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Pliny the Elder 1855. - Pliny the Elder (1855). The Natural History. Translated by John Bostock; H.T. Riley. London: Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street – via Perseus. <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0137" target="_blank">http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0137</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Fage 1979, p. 184. - Fage, J. D., ed. (1979). The Cambridge History of Africa. Vol. 2 (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Asso, Paolo (2010). A Commentary on Lucan, "De bella civili" IV: Introduction, Edition, and Translation. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3110203851. <a href="978-3110203851" target="_blank">978-3110203851</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Fentress, Elisabeth (1982). "Tribe an Faction : the Case of the Gaetuli". Mélanges de l'École française de Rome: Antiquité. Vol. 94. pp. 325–6. <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9langes_de_l%27%C3%89cole_fran%C3%A7aise_de_Rome:_Antiquit%C3%A9" target="_blank">/wiki/M%C3%A9langes_de_l%27%C3%89cole_fran%C3%A7aise_de_Rome:_Antiquit%C3%A9</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Cherry 1998, p. 38. - Cherry, David (1998). Frontier and Society in Roman North Africa. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Smith, William (1880). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. Vol. Earinus–Nyx. Unknown. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Cherry 1998, p. 39. - Cherry, David (1998). Frontier and Society in Roman North Africa. Oxford University Press. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Lee, Finkelpearl & Graverini 2014. - Lee, Benjamin Todd; Finkelpearl, Ellen & Graverini, Luca, eds. (2014). Apuleius and Africa. Routledge Press. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Sallust 1899, ch. 17. - Sallust (1899). The Jugurthine War. Translated by Rev. John Selby Watson, M.A. New York and London: Harper & Brothers. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Fage 1979, p. 143. - Fage, J. D., ed. (1979). The Cambridge History of Africa. Vol. 2 (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Fishwick & Shaw 1976, p. 492. - Fishwick, Duncan; Shaw, Brent D. (1976). "Ptolemy of Mauretania and the Conspiracy of Gaetulicus". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 25 (4): 491–494. JSTOR 4435530. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4435530" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/4435530</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Apuleius. Apologia. Vol. Chapter 24, Section 1. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Sallust 1899, ch. 18.3. - Sallust (1899). The Jugurthine War. Translated by Rev. John Selby Watson, M.A. New York and London: Harper & Brothers. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Sallust 1899, ch. 18.. - Sallust (1899). The Jugurthine War. Translated by Rev. John Selby Watson, M.A. New York and London: Harper & Brothers. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Fage 1979, p. 200. - Fage, J. D., ed. (1979). The Cambridge History of Africa. Vol. 2 (1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Athenaeus (1854). The Deipnosophists or Banquet of the Learned of Athenaeus. London: Henry G. Bohn. ch. 2.62. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Pliny the Elder 1855, ch. 1. - Pliny the Elder (1855). The Natural History. Translated by John Bostock; H.T. Riley. London: Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street – via Perseus. <a href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0137" target="_blank">http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0137</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Lee, Finkelpearl & Graverini 2014, p. 298. - Lee, Benjamin Todd; Finkelpearl, Ellen & Graverini, Luca, eds. (2014). Apuleius and Africa. Routledge Press. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Horace, Ode 1.23 <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Baker, Robert J. (1971). "The Rustle of Spring in Horace (Carm., I, 23)". American Journal of Philology. 92 (1): 71–75. doi:10.2307/293281. JSTOR 293281. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Virgil (2006). The Aeneid. Translated by Robert Fagles. United States of America: Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-03803-9. <a href="978-0-670-03803-9" target="_blank">978-0-670-03803-9</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Gaetuli open-in-new

Gaetuli