Ellipsoid

<h2 id="standard-equation">Standard equation</h2>
The general ellipsoid, also known as triaxial ellipsoid, is a quadratic surface which is defined in <a href="/facts/Cartesian_coordinate_system/lkTqvMmB">Cartesian coordinates</a> as:

x
              
                2
              
            
            
              a
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        +
        
          
            
              y
              
                2
              
            
            
              b
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        +
        
          
            
              z
              
                2
              
            
            
              c
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        =
        1
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {x^{2}}{a^{2}}}+{\frac {y^{2}}{b^{2}}}+{\frac {z^{2}}{c^{2}}}=1,}

where 
 
 
 
 a
 
 
 {\displaystyle a}
 
, 
 
 
 
 b
 
 
 {\displaystyle b}
 
 and 
 
 
 
 c
 
 
 {\displaystyle c}
 
 are the length of the semi-axes. 
The points 
 
 
 
 (
 a
 ,
 0
 ,
 0
 )
 
 
 {\displaystyle (a,0,0)}
 
, 
 
 
 
 (
 0
 ,
 b
 ,
 0
 )
 
 
 {\displaystyle (0,b,0)}
 
 and 
 
 
 
 (
 0
 ,
 0
 ,
 c
 )
 
 
 {\displaystyle (0,0,c)}
 
 lie on the surface. The line segments from the origin to these points are called the principal semi-axes of the ellipsoid, because a, b, c are half the length of the principal axes. They correspond to the <a href="/facts/Semi-major_axis/l7JES2wo">semi-major axis</a> and <a href="/facts/Semi-minor_axis/l7JES2wo">semi-minor axis</a> of an <a href="/facts/Ellipse/1wUDnGxY">ellipse</a>.
In <a href="/facts/Spherical_coordinate_system/5cVnNof3">spherical coordinate system</a> for which 
 
 
 
 (
 x
 ,
 y
 ,
 z
 )
 =
 (
 r
 sin
 ⁡
 θ
 cos
 ⁡
 φ
 ,
 r
 sin
 ⁡
 θ
 sin
 ⁡
 φ
 ,
 r
 cos
 ⁡
 θ
 )
 
 
 {\displaystyle (x,y,z)=(r\sin \theta \cos \varphi ,r\sin \theta \sin \varphi ,r\cos \theta )}
 
, the general ellipsoid is defined as:

r
                
                  2
                
              
              
                sin
                
                  2
                
              
              ⁡
              θ
              
                cos
                
                  2
                
              
              ⁡
              φ
            
            
              a
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        +
        
          
            
              
                r
                
                  2
                
              
              
                sin
                
                  2
                
              
              ⁡
              θ
              
                sin
                
                  2
                
              
              ⁡
              φ
            
            
              b
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        +
        
          
            
              
                r
                
                  2
                
              
              
                cos
                
                  2
                
              
              ⁡
              θ
            
            
              c
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        =
        1
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle {r^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta \cos ^{2}\varphi  \over a^{2}}+{r^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta \sin ^{2}\varphi  \over b^{2}}+{r^{2}\cos ^{2}\theta  \over c^{2}}=1,}

where 
 
 
 
 θ
 
 
 {\displaystyle \theta }
 
 is the polar angle and 
 
 
 
 φ
 
 
 {\displaystyle \varphi }
 
 is the azimuthal angle.
When 
 
 
 
 a
 =
 b
 =
 c
 
 
 {\displaystyle a=b=c}
 
, the ellipsoid is a sphere.
When 
 
 
 
 a
 =
 b
 ≠
 c
 
 
 {\displaystyle a=b\neq c}
 
, the ellipsoid is a spheroid or ellipsoid of revolution. In particular, if 
 
 
 
 a
 =
 b
 >
 c
 
 
 {\displaystyle a=b>c}
 
, it is an <a href="/facts/Oblate_spheroid/GJyyLxQ7">oblate spheroid</a>; if 
 
 
 
 a
 =
 b
 <
 c
 
 
 {\displaystyle a=b<c}
 
, it is a <a href="/facts/Prolate_spheroid/GJyyLxQ7">prolate spheroid</a>.

<h2 id="parameterization">Parameterization</h2>
The ellipsoid may be parameterized in several ways, which are simpler to express when the ellipsoid axes coincide with coordinate axes. A common choice is

x
              
              
                
                =
                a
                sin
                ⁡
                θ
                cos
                ⁡
                φ
                ,
              
            
            
              
                y
              
              
                
                =
                b
                sin
                ⁡
                θ
                sin
                ⁡
                φ
                ,
              
            
            
              
                z
              
              
                
                =
                c
                cos
                ⁡
                θ
                ,
              
            
          
        
        
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=a\sin \theta \cos \varphi ,\\y&=b\sin \theta \sin \varphi ,\\z&=c\cos \theta ,\end{aligned}}\,\!}

where

0
 ≤
 θ
 ≤
 π
 ,
 
 0
 ≤
 φ
 <
 2
 π
 .
 
 
 {\displaystyle 0\leq \theta \leq \pi ,\qquad 0\leq \varphi <2\pi .}

These parameters may be interpreted as <a href="/facts/Spherical_coordinates/5cVnNof3">spherical coordinates</a>, where θ is the polar angle and φ is the azimuth angle of the point (x, y, z) of the ellipsoid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1">1</a>
Measuring from the equator rather than a pole,

x
              
              
                
                =
                a
                cos
                ⁡
                θ
                cos
                ⁡
                λ
                ,
              
            
            
              
                y
              
              
                
                =
                b
                cos
                ⁡
                θ
                sin
                ⁡
                λ
                ,
              
            
            
              
                z
              
              
                
                =
                c
                sin
                ⁡
                θ
                ,
              
            
          
        
        
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=a\cos \theta \cos \lambda ,\\y&=b\cos \theta \sin \lambda ,\\z&=c\sin \theta ,\end{aligned}}\,\!}

where

−
 
 
 
 π
 2
 
 
 
 ≤
 θ
 ≤
 
 
 
 π
 2
 
 
 
 ,
 
 0
 ≤
 λ
 <
 2
 π
 ,
 
 
 {\displaystyle -{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}\leq \theta \leq {\tfrac {\pi }{2}},\qquad 0\leq \lambda <2\pi ,}

θ is the <a href="/facts/Reduced_latitude/IBYqkjhU">reduced latitude</a>, <a href="/facts/Parametric_latitude/IBYqkjhU">parametric latitude</a>, or <a href="/facts/Eccentric_anomaly/rmbJzkGl">eccentric anomaly</a> and λ is azimuth or longitude.
Measuring angles directly to the surface of the ellipsoid, not to the circumscribed sphere,

[
            
              
                
                  x
                
              
              
                
                  y
                
              
              
                
                  z
                
              
            
            ]
          
        
        =
        R
        
          
            [
            
              
                
                  cos
                  ⁡
                  γ
                  cos
                  ⁡
                  λ
                
              
              
                
                  cos
                  ⁡
                  γ
                  sin
                  ⁡
                  λ
                
              
              
                
                  sin
                  ⁡
                  γ
                
              
            
            ]
          
        
        
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}}=R{\begin{bmatrix}\cos \gamma \cos \lambda \\\cos \gamma \sin \lambda \\\sin \gamma \end{bmatrix}}\,\!}

where

R
                =

a
 b
 c
 
 
 
 c
 
 2
 
 
 
 (
 
 
 b
 
 2
 
 
 
 cos
 
 2
 
 
 ⁡
 λ
 +
 
 a
 
 2
 
 
 
 sin
 
 2
 
 
 ⁡
 λ
 
 )
 
 
 cos
 
 2
 
 
 ⁡
 γ
 +
 
 a
 
 2
 
 
 
 b
 
 2
 
 
 
 sin
 
 2
 
 
 ⁡
 γ
 
 
 
 ,
 
 
 
 
 
 
 −
 
 
 
 π
 2
 
 
 
 ≤
 γ
 ≤
 
 
 
 π
 2
 
 
 
 ,
 
 0
 ≤
 λ
 <
 2
 π
 .
 
 
 
 
 
 
 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}R={}&{\frac {abc}{\sqrt {c^{2}\left(b^{2}\cos ^{2}\lambda +a^{2}\sin ^{2}\lambda \right)\cos ^{2}\gamma +a^{2}b^{2}\sin ^{2}\gamma }}},\\[3pt]&-{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}\leq \gamma \leq {\tfrac {\pi }{2}},\qquad 0\leq \lambda <2\pi .\end{aligned}}}

γ would be <a href="/facts/Geocentric_latitude/IBYqkjhU">geocentric latitude</a> on the Earth, and λ is longitude. These are true spherical coordinates with the origin at the center of the ellipsoid.
In <a href="/facts/Geodesy/EJH0Te0m">geodesy</a>, the <a href="/facts/Geodetic_latitude/IBYqkjhU">geodetic latitude</a> is most commonly used, as the angle between the vertical and the equatorial plane, defined for a biaxial ellipsoid. For a more general triaxial ellipsoid, see <a href="/facts/Ellipsoidal_latitude/I4kBSdYu">ellipsoidal latitude</a>.

<h2 id="volume">Volume</h2>
The <a href="/facts/Volume/aeAXCBUd">volume</a> bounded by the ellipsoid is

V
        =
        
          
            
              4
              3
            
          
        
        π
        a
        b
        c
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle V={\tfrac {4}{3}}\pi abc.}

In terms of the principal <a href="/facts/Diameter/6uNn4VmU">diameters</a> A, B, C (where A = 2a, B = 2b, C = 2c), the volume is

V
 =
 
 
 
 1
 6
 
 
 
 π
 A
 B
 C
 
 
 {\displaystyle V={\tfrac {1}{6}}\pi ABC}
 
.
This equation reduces to that of the volume of a sphere when all three elliptic radii are equal, and to that of an <a href="/facts/Oblate_spheroid/GJyyLxQ7">oblate</a> or <a href="/facts/Prolate_spheroid/GJyyLxQ7">prolate spheroid</a> when two of them are equal.
The <a href="/facts/Volume/aeAXCBUd">volume</a> of an ellipsoid is ⁠2/3⁠ the volume of a <a href="/facts/Circumscribed/RafYT4am">circumscribed</a> <a href="/facts/Elliptic_cylinder/0wQPPr3k">elliptic cylinder</a>, and ⁠π/6⁠ the volume of the circumscribed box. The <a href="/facts/Volumes/aeAXCBUd">volumes</a> of the <a href="/facts/Inscribed/ltbko1Eh">inscribed</a> and circumscribed <a href="/facts/Rectangular_cuboid/eLLKX4rh">boxes</a> are respectively:

V
          
            inscribed
          
        
        =
        
          
            8
            
              3
              
                
                  3
                
              
            
          
        
        a
        b
        c
        ,
        
        
          V
          
            circumscribed
          
        
        =
        8
        a
        b
        c
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle V_{\text{inscribed}}={\frac {8}{3{\sqrt {3}}}}abc,\qquad V_{\text{circumscribed}}=8abc.}

<h2 id="surface-area">Surface area</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Area_of_a_geodesic_polygon/I4kBSdYu">Area of a geodesic polygon</a>
The <a href="/facts/Surface_area/WNowzFCw">surface area</a> of a general (triaxial) ellipsoid is<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a>

S
        =
        2
        π
        
          c
          
            2
          
        
        +
        
          
            
              2
              π
              a
              b
            
            
              sin
              ⁡
              (
              φ
              )
            
          
        
        
          (
          
            E
            (
            φ
            ,
            k
            )
            
            
              sin
              
                2
              
            
            ⁡
            (
            φ
            )
            +
            F
            (
            φ
            ,
            k
            )
            
            
              cos
              
                2
              
            
            ⁡
            (
            φ
            )
          
          )
        
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle S=2\pi c^{2}+{\frac {2\pi ab}{\sin(\varphi )}}\left(E(\varphi ,k)\,\sin ^{2}(\varphi )+F(\varphi ,k)\,\cos ^{2}(\varphi )\right),}

where

cos
        ⁡
        (
        φ
        )
        =
        
          
            c
            a
          
        
        ,
        
        
          k
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            
              
                a
                
                  2
                
              
              
                (
                
                  
                    b
                    
                      2
                    
                  
                  −
                  
                    c
                    
                      2
                    
                  
                
                )
              
            
            
              
                b
                
                  2
                
              
              
                (
                
                  
                    a
                    
                      2
                    
                  
                  −
                  
                    c
                    
                      2
                    
                  
                
                )
              
            
          
        
        ,
        
        a
        ≥
        b
        ≥
        c
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle \cos(\varphi )={\frac {c}{a}},\qquad k^{2}={\frac {a^{2}\left(b^{2}-c^{2}\right)}{b^{2}\left(a^{2}-c^{2}\right)}},\qquad a\geq b\geq c,}

and where F(φ, k) and E(φ, k) are incomplete <a href="/facts/Elliptic_integral/q8EGYzQ3">elliptic integrals</a> of the first and second kind respectively.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a> 
The surface area of this general ellipsoid can also be expressed in terms of ⁠
 
 
 
 
 R
 
 G
 
 
 
 
 {\displaystyle R_{G}}
 
⁠, one of the <a href="/facts/Carlson_symmetric_form/w1W9gCqr">Carlson symmetric forms</a> of elliptic integrals:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a>

S
        =
        4
        π
        b
        c
        
          R
          
            G
          
        
        
          (
          
            
              
                
                  a
                  
                    2
                  
                
                
                  b
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
            
            ,
            
              
                
                  a
                  
                    2
                  
                
                
                  c
                  
                    2
                  
                
              
            
            ,
            1
          
          )
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle S=4\pi bcR_{G}\left({\frac {a^{2}}{b^{2}}},{\frac {a^{2}}{c^{2}}},1\right).}

Simplifying the above formula using properties of RG,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> this can also be expressed in terms of the volume of the ellipsoid V:

S
        =
        3
        V
        
          R
          
            G
          
        
        
          (
          
            
              a
              
                −
                2
              
            
            ,
            
              b
              
                −
                2
              
            
            ,
            
              c
              
                −
                2
              
            
          
          )
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle S=3VR_{G}\left(a^{-2},b^{-2},c^{-2}\right).}

Unlike the expression with F(φ, k) and E(φ, k), the equations in terms of RG do not depend on the choice of an order on a, b, and c. 
The surface area of an ellipsoid of revolution (or spheroid) may be expressed in terms of <a href="/facts/Elementary_function/wVFyDwu8">elementary functions</a>:

S
 
 oblate
 
 
 =
 2
 π
 
 a
 
 2
 
 
 
 (
 
 1
 +
 
 
 
 c
 
 2
 
 
 
 e
 
 a
 
 2
 
 
 
 
 
 artanh
 ⁡
 e
 
 )
 
 ,
 
 
 where 
 
 
 e
 
 2
 
 
 =
 1
 −
 
 
 
 c
 
 2
 
 
 
 a
 
 2
 
 
 
 
 
  and 
 
 (
 c
 <
 a
 )
 ,
 
 
 {\displaystyle S_{\text{oblate}}=2\pi a^{2}\left(1+{\frac {c^{2}}{ea^{2}}}\operatorname {artanh} e\right),\qquad {\text{where }}e^{2}=1-{\frac {c^{2}}{a^{2}}}{\text{ and }}(c<a),}

or

S
          
            oblate
          
        
        =
        2
        π
        
          a
          
            2
          
        
        
          (
          
            1
            +
            
              
                
                  1
                  −
                  
                    e
                    
                      2
                    
                  
                
                e
              
            
            artanh
            ⁡
            e
          
          )
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S_{\text{oblate}}=2\pi a^{2}\left(1+{\frac {1-e^{2}}{e}}\operatorname {artanh} e\right)}

or

S
          
            oblate
          
        
        =
        2
        π
        
          a
          
            2
          
        
         
        +
        
          
            
              π
              
                c
                
                  2
                
              
            
            e
          
        
        ln
        ⁡
        
          
            
              1
              +
              e
            
            
              1
              −
              e
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S_{\text{oblate}}=2\pi a^{2}\ +{\frac {\pi c^{2}}{e}}\ln {\frac {1+e}{1-e}}}

and

S
          
            prolate
          
        
        =
        2
        π
        
          a
          
            2
          
        
        
          (
          
            1
            +
            
              
                c
                
                  a
                  e
                
              
            
            arcsin
            ⁡
            e
          
          )
        
        
        
          where 
        
        
          e
          
            2
          
        
        =
        1
        −
        
          
            
              a
              
                2
              
            
            
              c
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        
           and 
        
        (
        c
        >
        a
        )
        ,
      
    
    {\displaystyle S_{\text{prolate}}=2\pi a^{2}\left(1+{\frac {c}{ae}}\arcsin e\right)\qquad {\text{where }}e^{2}=1-{\frac {a^{2}}{c^{2}}}{\text{ and }}(c>a),}

which, as follows from basic trigonometric identities, are equivalent expressions (i.e. the formula for Soblate can be used to calculate the surface area of a prolate ellipsoid and vice versa). In both cases e may again be identified as the <a href="/facts/Eccentricity_(mathematics)/SzgpW5R7">eccentricity</a> of the ellipse formed by the cross section through the symmetry axis. (See <a href="/facts/Ellipse/1wUDnGxY">ellipse</a>). Derivations of these results may be found in standard sources, for example <a href="/facts/Mathworld/yc1jodbq">Mathworld</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a>

<h3>Approximate formula</h3>

S
        ≈
        4
        π
        
          
            
              
                
                  a
                  
                    p
                  
                
                
                  b
                  
                    p
                  
                
                +
                
                  a
                  
                    p
                  
                
                
                  c
                  
                    p
                  
                
                +
                
                  b
                  
                    p
                  
                
                
                  c
                  
                    p
                  
                
              
              3
            
            
              p
            
          
        
        .
        
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle S\approx 4\pi {\sqrt[{p}]{\frac {a^{p}b^{p}+a^{p}c^{p}+b^{p}c^{p}}{3}}}.\,\!}

Here p ≈ 1.6075 yields a relative error of at most 1.061%;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> a value of p = ⁠8/5⁠ = 1.6 is optimal for nearly spherical ellipsoids, with a relative error of at most 1.178%.
In the "flat" limit of c much smaller than a and b, the area is approximately 2πab, equivalent to p = log23 ≈ 1.5849625007.

<h2 id="plane-sections">Plane sections</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Earth_section/dqcJlpAr">Earth section</a>

The intersection of a plane and a sphere is a circle (or is reduced to a single point, or is empty). Any ellipsoid is the image of the unit sphere under some affine transformation, and any plane is the image of some other plane under the same transformation. So, because affine transformations map circles to ellipses, the intersection of a plane with an ellipsoid is an ellipse or a single point, or is empty.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> Obviously, spheroids contain circles. This is also true, but less obvious, for triaxial ellipsoids (see <a href="/facts/Circular_section/hddscubM">Circular section</a>).

<h3>Determining the ellipse of a plane section</h3>

Given: Ellipsoid ⁠x2/a2⁠ + ⁠y2/b2⁠ + ⁠z2/c2⁠ = 1 and the plane with equation nxx + nyy + nzz = d, which have an ellipse in common.
Wanted: Three vectors f0 (center) and f1, f2 (conjugate vectors), such that the ellipse can be represented by the parametric equation

x
        
        =
        
          
            f
          
          
            0
          
        
        +
        
          
            f
          
          
            1
          
        
        cos
        ⁡
        t
        +
        
          
            f
          
          
            2
          
        
        sin
        ⁡
        t
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =\mathbf {f} _{0}+\mathbf {f} _{1}\cos t+\mathbf {f} _{2}\sin t}

(see <a href="/facts/Ellipse/1wUDnGxY">ellipse</a>).

Solution: The scaling u = ⁠x/a⁠, v = ⁠y/b⁠, w = ⁠z/c⁠ transforms the ellipsoid onto the unit sphere u2 + v2 + w2 = 1 and the given plane onto the plane with equation

n
          
            x
          
        
        a
        u
        +
        
          n
          
            y
          
        
        b
        v
        +
        
          n
          
            z
          
        
        c
        w
        =
        d
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \ n_{x}au+n_{y}bv+n_{z}cw=d.}

Let muu + mvv + mww = δ be the <a href="/facts/Hesse_normal_form/8f4UFTXY">Hesse normal form</a> of the new plane and

m
        
        =
        
          
            [
            
              
                
                  
                    m
                    
                      u
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                  
                    m
                    
                      v
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                  
                    m
                    
                      w
                    
                  
                
              
            
            ]
          
        
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \;\mathbf {m} ={\begin{bmatrix}m_{u}\\m_{v}\\m_{w}\end{bmatrix}}\;}

its unit normal vector. Hence

e
          
          
            0
          
        
        =
        δ
        
          m
        
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathbf {e} _{0}=\delta \mathbf {m} \;}

is the center of the intersection circle and

ρ
        =
        
          
            1
            −
            
              δ
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \;\rho ={\sqrt {1-\delta ^{2}}}\;}

its radius (see diagram).
Where mw = ±1 (i.e. the plane is horizontal), let

e
          
          
            1
          
        
        =
        
          
            [
            
              
                
                  ρ
                
              
              
                
                  0
                
              
              
                
                  0
                
              
            
            ]
          
        
        ,
        
        
          
            e
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          
            [
            
              
                
                  0
                
              
              
                
                  ρ
                
              
              
                
                  0
                
              
            
            ]
          
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \ \mathbf {e} _{1}={\begin{bmatrix}\rho \\0\\0\end{bmatrix}},\qquad \mathbf {e} _{2}={\begin{bmatrix}0\\\rho \\0\end{bmatrix}}.}

Where mw ≠ ±1, let

e
          
          
            1
          
        
        =
        
          
            ρ
            
              
                m
                
                  u
                
                
                  2
                
              
              +
              
                m
                
                  v
                
                
                  2
                
              
            
          
        
        
        
          
            [
            
              
                
                  
                    m
                    
                      v
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                  −
                  
                    m
                    
                      u
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                  0
                
              
            
            ]
          
        
        
        ,
        
        
          
            e
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          m
        
        ×
        
          
            e
          
          
            1
          
        
         
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathbf {e} _{1}={\frac {\rho }{\sqrt {m_{u}^{2}+m_{v}^{2}}}}\,{\begin{bmatrix}m_{v}\\-m_{u}\\0\end{bmatrix}}\,,\qquad \mathbf {e} _{2}=\mathbf {m} \times \mathbf {e} _{1}\ .}

In any case, the vectors e1, e2 are orthogonal, parallel to the intersection plane and have length ρ (radius of the circle). Hence the intersection circle can be described by the parametric equation

u
        
        =
        
          
            e
          
          
            0
          
        
        +
        
          
            e
          
          
            1
          
        
        cos
        ⁡
        t
        +
        
          
            e
          
          
            2
          
        
        sin
        ⁡
        t
        
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \;\mathbf {u} =\mathbf {e} _{0}+\mathbf {e} _{1}\cos t+\mathbf {e} _{2}\sin t\;.}

The reverse scaling (see above) transforms the unit sphere back to the ellipsoid and the vectors e0, e1, e2 are mapped onto vectors f0, f1, f2, which were wanted for the parametric representation of the intersection ellipse. 
How to find the vertices and semi-axes of the ellipse is described in <a href="/facts/Ellipse/1wUDnGxY">ellipse</a>.
Example: The diagrams show an ellipsoid with the semi-axes a = 4, b = 5, c = 3 which is cut by the plane x + y + z = 5.

<h2 id="pins-and-string-construction">Pins-and-string construction</h2>

The pins-and-string construction of an ellipsoid is a transfer of the idea constructing an ellipse using two <a href="/facts/Ellipse/1wUDnGxY">pins and a string</a> (see diagram).
A pins-and-string construction of an <a href="/facts/Ellipsoid_of_revolution/GJyyLxQ7">ellipsoid of revolution</a> is given by the pins-and-string construction of the rotated ellipse. 
The construction of points of a triaxial ellipsoid is more complicated. First ideas are due to the Scottish physicist <a href="/facts/James_Clerk_Maxwell/jtYyze61">J. C. Maxwell</a> (1868).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> Main investigations and the extension to quadrics was done by the German mathematician O. Staude in 1882, 1886 and 1898.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> The description of the pins-and-string construction of ellipsoids and hyperboloids is contained in the book Geometry and the imagination written by <a href="/facts/David_Hilbert/1vhlHn4b">D. Hilbert</a> & S. Vossen,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> too.

<h3>Steps of the construction</h3>
<ol><li>Choose an ellipse E and a hyperbola H, which are a pair of <a href="/facts/Focal_conics/W4p0ttQx">focal conics</a>: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E
 (
 φ
 )
 
 
 
 =
 (
 a
 cos
 ⁡
 φ
 ,
 b
 sin
 ⁡
 φ
 ,
 0
 )
 
 
 
 
 H
 (
 ψ
 )
 
 
 
 =
 (
 c
 cosh
 ⁡
 ψ
 ,
 0
 ,
 b
 sinh
 ⁡
 ψ
 )
 ,
 
 
 c
 
 2
 
 
 =
 
 a
 
 2
 
 
 −
 
 b
 
 2
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}E(\varphi )&=(a\cos \varphi ,b\sin \varphi ,0)\\H(\psi )&=(c\cosh \psi ,0,b\sinh \psi ),\quad c^{2}=a^{2}-b^{2}\end{aligned}}}
 
 with the vertices and foci of the ellipse 
 
 
 
 
 S
 
 1
 
 
 =
 (
 a
 ,
 0
 ,
 0
 )
 ,
 
 
 F
 
 1
 
 
 =
 (
 c
 ,
 0
 ,
 0
 )
 ,
 
 
 F
 
 2
 
 
 =
 (
 −
 c
 ,
 0
 ,
 0
 )
 ,
 
 
 S
 
 2
 
 
 =
 (
 −
 a
 ,
 0
 ,
 0
 )
 
 
 {\displaystyle S_{1}=(a,0,0),\quad F_{1}=(c,0,0),\quad F_{2}=(-c,0,0),\quad S_{2}=(-a,0,0)}
 
 and a string (in diagram red) of length l.</li>
<li>Pin one end of the string to <a href="/facts/Vertex_(curve)/FkoCoHhV">vertex</a> S1 and the other to focus F2. The string is kept tight at a point P with positive y- and z-coordinates, such that the string runs from S1 to P behind the upper part of the hyperbola (see diagram) and is free to slide on the hyperbola. The part of the string from P to F2 runs and slides in front of the ellipse. The string runs through that point of the hyperbola, for which the distance |S1 P| over any hyperbola point is at a minimum. The analogous statement on the second part of the string and the ellipse has to be true, too.</li>
<li>Then: P is a point of the ellipsoid with equation 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x
 
 2
 
 
 
 r
 
 x
 
 
 2
 
 
 
 
 +
 
 
 
 y
 
 2
 
 
 
 r
 
 y
 
 
 2
 
 
 
 
 +
 
 
 
 z
 
 2
 
 
 
 r
 
 z
 
 
 2
 
 
 
 
 =
 1
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r
 
 x
 
 
 =
 
 
 
 1
 2
 
 
 
 (
 l
 −
 a
 +
 c
 )
 ,
 
 
 r
 
 y
 
 
 =
 
 
 
 
 
 r
 
 x
 
 
 2
 
 
 −
 
 c
 
 2
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,
 
 
 r
 
 z
 
 
 =
 
 
 
 
 
 r
 
 x
 
 
 2
 
 
 −
 
 a
 
 2
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .
 
 
 
 
 
 
 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\frac {x^{2}}{r_{x}^{2}}}+{\frac {y^{2}}{r_{y}^{2}}}+{\frac {z^{2}}{r_{z}^{2}}}=1\\&r_{x}={\tfrac {1}{2}}(l-a+c),\quad r_{y}={\textstyle {\sqrt {r_{x}^{2}-c^{2}}}},\quad r_{z}={\textstyle {\sqrt {r_{x}^{2}-a^{2}}}}.\end{aligned}}}
 
</li>
<li>The remaining points of the ellipsoid can be constructed by suitable changes of the string at the focal conics.</li></ol>
<h3>Semi-axes</h3>
Equations for the semi-axes of the generated ellipsoid can be derived by special choices for point P:

Y
        =
        (
        0
        ,
        
          r
          
            y
          
        
        ,
        0
        )
        ,
        
        Z
        =
        (
        0
        ,
        0
        ,
        
          r
          
            z
          
        
        )
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle Y=(0,r_{y},0),\quad Z=(0,0,r_{z}).}

The lower part of the diagram shows that F1 and F2 are the foci of the ellipse in the xy-plane, too. Hence, it is <a href="/facts/Confocal_conic_sections/sNANGYBF">confocal</a> to the given ellipse and the length of the string is l = 2rx + (a − c). Solving for rx yields rx = ⁠1/2⁠(l − a + c); furthermore r2y = r2x − c2.
From the upper diagram we see that S1 and S2 are the foci of the ellipse section of the ellipsoid in the xz-plane and that r2z = r2x − a2.

<h3>Converse</h3>
If, conversely, a triaxial ellipsoid is given by its equation, then from the equations in step 3 one can derive the parameters a, b, l for a pins-and-string construction. 

<h3>Confocal ellipsoids</h3>
If E is an ellipsoid <a href="/facts/Confocal_quadrics/sNANGYBF">confocal</a> to E with the squares of its semi-axes

r
              ¯
            
          
          
            x
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          r
          
            x
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        λ
        ,
        
        
          
            
              r
              ¯
            
          
          
            y
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          r
          
            y
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        λ
        ,
        
        
          
            
              r
              ¯
            
          
          
            z
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          r
          
            z
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        λ
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\overline {r}}_{x}^{2}=r_{x}^{2}-\lambda ,\quad {\overline {r}}_{y}^{2}=r_{y}^{2}-\lambda ,\quad {\overline {r}}_{z}^{2}=r_{z}^{2}-\lambda }

then from the equations of E

r
          
            x
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        
          r
          
            y
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          c
          
            2
          
        
        ,
        
        
          r
          
            x
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        
          r
          
            z
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          a
          
            2
          
        
        ,
        
        
          r
          
            y
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        
          r
          
            z
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          a
          
            2
          
        
        −
        
          c
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          b
          
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle r_{x}^{2}-r_{y}^{2}=c^{2},\quad r_{x}^{2}-r_{z}^{2}=a^{2},\quad r_{y}^{2}-r_{z}^{2}=a^{2}-c^{2}=b^{2}}

one finds, that the corresponding focal conics used for the pins-and-string construction have the same semi-axes a, b, c as ellipsoid E. Therefore (analogously to the foci of an ellipse) one considers the focal conics of a triaxial ellipsoid as the (infinite many) foci and calls them the focal curves of the ellipsoid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>
The converse statement is true, too: if one chooses a second string of length l and defines

λ
        =
        
          r
          
            x
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        
          
            
              r
              ¯
            
          
          
            x
          
          
            2
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \lambda =r_{x}^{2}-{\overline {r}}_{x}^{2}}

then the equations

r
              ¯
            
          
          
            y
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          r
          
            y
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        λ
        ,
        
        
          
            
              r
              ¯
            
          
          
            z
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        
          r
          
            z
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        λ
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\overline {r}}_{y}^{2}=r_{y}^{2}-\lambda ,\quad {\overline {r}}_{z}^{2}=r_{z}^{2}-\lambda }

are valid, which means the two ellipsoids are confocal.

<h3>Limit case, ellipsoid of revolution</h3>
In case of a = c (a <a href="/facts/Spheroid/GJyyLxQ7">spheroid</a>) one gets S1 = F1 and S2 = F2, which means that the focal ellipse degenerates to a line segment and the focal hyperbola collapses to two infinite line segments on the x-axis. The ellipsoid is <a href="/facts/Rotational_symmetry/bpvJqcnS">rotationally symmetric</a> around the x-axis and

r
 
 x
 
 
 =
 
 
 
 1
 2
 
 
 
 l
 ,
 
 
 r
 
 y
 
 
 =
 
 r
 
 z
 
 
 =
 
 
 
 
 
 r
 
 x
 
 
 2
 
 
 −
 
 c
 
 2
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 {\displaystyle r_{x}={\tfrac {1}{2}}l,\quad r_{y}=r_{z}={\textstyle {\sqrt {r_{x}^{2}-c^{2}}}}}
 
.
<h3>Properties of the focal hyperbola</h3>

True curve
If one views an ellipsoid from an external point V of its focal hyperbola, then it seems to be a sphere, that is its apparent shape is a circle. Equivalently, the tangents of the ellipsoid containing point V are the lines of a circular <a href="/facts/Cone/2c9GIzYD">cone</a>, whose axis of rotation is the <a href="/facts/Tangent_(geometry)/sF0jH3EI">tangent line</a> of the hyperbola at V.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> If one allows the center V to disappear into infinity, one gets an <a href="/facts/Orthogonal_projection/sElXGkxD">orthogonal</a> <a href="/facts/Parallel_projection/QhSERFh6">parallel projection</a> with the corresponding <a href="/facts/Asymptote/nvLPuxKa">asymptote</a> of the focal hyperbola as its direction. The true curve of shape (tangent points) on the ellipsoid is not a circle. The lower part of the diagram shows on the left a parallel projection of an ellipsoid (with semi-axes 60, 40, 30) along an asymptote and on the right a central projection with center V and main point H on the tangent of the hyperbola at point V. (H is the foot of the perpendicular from V onto the image plane.) For both projections the apparent shape is a circle. In the parallel case the image of the origin O is the circle's center; in the central case main point H is the center.
Umbilical points
The focal hyperbola intersects the ellipsoid at its four <a href="/facts/Umbilical_point/kGaaHg4f">umbilical points</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a>
<h3>Property of the focal ellipse</h3>
The focal ellipse together with its inner part can be considered as the limit surface (an infinitely thin ellipsoid) of the <a href="/facts/Pencil_(mathematics)/b75bj3wd">pencil</a> of confocal ellipsoids determined by a, b for rz → 0. For the limit case one gets

r
          
            x
          
        
        =
        a
        ,
        
        
          r
          
            y
          
        
        =
        b
        ,
        
        l
        =
        3
        a
        −
        c
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle r_{x}=a,\quad r_{y}=b,\quad l=3a-c.}

<h2 id="in-higher-dimensions-and-general-position">In higher dimensions and general position </h2>
A hyperellipsoid, or ellipsoid of dimension 
 
 
 
 n
 −
 1
 
 
 {\displaystyle n-1}
 
 in a <a href="/facts/Euclidean_space/R2UbzmzM">Euclidean space</a> of dimension 
 
 
 
 n
 
 
 {\displaystyle n}
 
, is a <a href="/facts/Quadric_hypersurface/L3cTApd4">quadric hypersurface</a> defined by a polynomial of degree two that has a <a href="/facts/Homogeneous_polynomial/WUHL7Kct">homogeneous part</a> of degree two which is a <a href="/facts/Positive_definite_quadratic_form/utlBuVpN">positive definite quadratic form</a>.
One can also define a hyperellipsoid as the image of a sphere under an invertible <a href="/facts/Affine_transformation/BD7yDr10">affine transformation</a>. The spectral theorem can again be used to obtain a standard equation of the form

x
              
                1
              
              
                2
              
            
            
              a
              
                1
              
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        +
        
          
            
              x
              
                2
              
              
                2
              
            
            
              a
              
                2
              
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        +
        ⋯
        +
        
          
            
              x
              
                n
              
              
                2
              
            
            
              a
              
                n
              
              
                2
              
            
          
        
        =
        1.
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\frac {x_{1}^{2}}{a_{1}^{2}}}+{\frac {x_{2}^{2}}{a_{2}^{2}}}+\cdots +{\frac {x_{n}^{2}}{a_{n}^{2}}}=1.}

The volume of an n-dimensional hyperellipsoid can be obtained by replacing Rn by the product of the semi-axes a1a2...an in the formula for the <a href="/facts/Volume_of_an_n-ball/4qERL2I4">volume of a hypersphere</a>:

V
        =
        
          
            
              π
              
                
                  n
                  2
                
              
            
            
              Γ
              
                
                  (
                  
                    
                      
                        n
                        2
                      
                    
                    +
                    1
                  
                  )
                
              
            
          
        
        
          a
          
            1
          
        
        
          a
          
            2
          
        
        ⋯
        
          a
          
            n
          
        
        ≈
        
          
            1
            
              π
              n
            
          
        
        ⋅
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  2
                  e
                  π
                
                n
              
            
            )
          
          
            n
            
              /
            
            2
          
        
        
          a
          
            1
          
        
        
          a
          
            2
          
        
        ⋯
        
          a
          
            n
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle V={\frac {\pi ^{\frac {n}{2}}}{\Gamma {\left({\frac {n}{2}}+1\right)}}}a_{1}a_{2}\cdots a_{n}\approx {\frac {1}{\sqrt {\pi n}}}\cdot \left({\frac {2e\pi }{n}}\right)^{n/2}a_{1}a_{2}\cdots a_{n}}

(where Γ is the <a href="/facts/Gamma_function/SjGQcnyw">gamma function</a>).

<h3>As a quadric</h3>
If A is a real, symmetric, n-by-n <a href="/facts/Positive-definite_matrix/Hbr6AuPS">positive-definite matrix</a>, and v is a vector in 
 
 
 
 
 
 R
 
 
 n
 
 
 ,
 
 
 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n},}
 
 then the set of points x that satisfy the equation

(
        
          x
        
        −
        
          v
        
        
          )
          
            
              T
            
          
        
        
        
          A
        
        
        (
        
          x
        
        −
        
          v
        
        )
        =
        1
      
    
    {\displaystyle (\mathbf {x} -\mathbf {v} )^{\mathsf {T}}\!{\boldsymbol {A}}\,(\mathbf {x} -\mathbf {v} )=1}

is an n-dimensional ellipsoid centered at v. The expression 
 
 
 
 (
 
 x
 
 −
 
 v
 
 
 )
 
 
 T
 
 
 
 
 
 A
 
 
 (
 
 x
 
 −
 
 v
 
 )
 
 
 {\displaystyle (\mathbf {x} -\mathbf {v} )^{\mathsf {T}}\!{\boldsymbol {A}}\,(\mathbf {x} -\mathbf {v} )}
 
 is also called the ellipsoidal norm of x − v. For every ellipsoid, there are unique A and v that satisfy the above equation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>: 67 
The <a href="/facts/Eigenvector/8TjEoT8u">eigenvectors</a> of A are the principal axes of the ellipsoid, and the <a href="/facts/Eigenvalue/8TjEoT8u">eigenvalues</a> of A are the reciprocals of the squares of the semi-axes (in three dimensions these are a−2, b−2 and c−2).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> In particular:

<ul><li>The <a href="/facts/Diameter/6uNn4VmU">diameter</a> of the ellipsoid is twice the longest semi-axis, which is twice the square-root of the reciprocal of the largest eigenvalue of A.</li>
<li>The <a href="/facts/Width/EwFyAqGH">width</a> of the ellipsoid is twice the shortest semi-axis, which is twice the square-root of the reciprocal of the smallest eigenvalue of A.</li></ul>
An invertible <a href="/facts/Linear_transformation/Q1PBKNVV">linear transformation</a> applied to a sphere produces an ellipsoid, which can be brought into the above standard form by a suitable <a href="/facts/Rotation/yChkz49x">rotation</a>, a consequence of the <a href="/facts/Polar_decomposition/XWQLdp9B">polar decomposition</a> (also, see <a href="/facts/Spectral_theorem/Vqc04B21">spectral theorem</a>). If the linear transformation is represented by a <a href="/facts/Symmetric_matrix/08CGwjNl">symmetric 3 × 3 matrix</a>, then the eigenvectors of the matrix are orthogonal (due to the <a href="/facts/Spectral_theorem/Vqc04B21">spectral theorem</a>) and represent the directions of the axes of the ellipsoid; the lengths of the semi-axes are computed from the eigenvalues. The <a href="/facts/Singular_value_decomposition/8t3v6wk3">singular value decomposition</a> and <a href="/facts/Polar_decomposition/XWQLdp9B">polar decomposition</a> are matrix decompositions closely related to these geometric observations.

For every positive definite matrix 
 
 
 
 
 A
 
 
 
 {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}}
 
, there exists a unique positive definite matrix denoted A1/2, such that 
 
 
 
 
 A
 
 =
 
 
 A
 
 
 1
 
 /
 
 2
 
 
 
 
 A
 
 
 1
 
 /
 
 2
 
 
 ;
 
 
 {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}={\boldsymbol {A}}^{1/2}{\boldsymbol {A}}^{1/2};}
 
 this notation is motivated by the fact that this matrix can be seen as the "positive square root" of 
 
 
 
 
 A
 
 .
 
 
 {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {A}}.}
 
 The ellipsoid defined by 
 
 
 
 (
 
 x
 
 −
 
 v
 
 
 )
 
 
 T
 
 
 
 
 
 A
 
 
 (
 
 x
 
 −
 
 v
 
 )
 =
 1
 
 
 {\displaystyle (\mathbf {x} -\mathbf {v} )^{\mathsf {T}}\!{\boldsymbol {A}}\,(\mathbf {x} -\mathbf {v} )=1}
 
 can also be presented as<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>: 67 <blockquote>
 
 
 
 
 A
 
 −
 1
 
 /
 
 2
 
 
 ⋅
 S
 (
 
 0
 
 ,
 1
 )
 +
 
 v
 
 
 
 {\displaystyle A^{-1/2}\cdot S(\mathbf {0} ,1)+\mathbf {v} }
 
</blockquote>where S(0,1) is the <a href="/facts/Unit_sphere/5UeoTcug">unit sphere</a> around the origin.
<h3>Parametric representation</h3>

The key to a parametric representation of an ellipsoid in general position is the alternative definition:

An ellipsoid is an affine image of the unit sphere.
An <a href="/facts/Affine_transformation/BD7yDr10">affine transformation</a> can be represented by a translation with a vector f0 and a regular 3 × 3 matrix A:

x
        
        ↦
        
          
            f
          
          
            0
          
        
        +
        
          A
        
        
          x
        
        =
        
          
            f
          
          
            0
          
        
        +
        x
        
          
            f
          
          
            1
          
        
        +
        y
        
          
            f
          
          
            2
          
        
        +
        z
        
          
            f
          
          
            3
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} \mapsto \mathbf {f} _{0}+{\boldsymbol {A}}\mathbf {x} =\mathbf {f} _{0}+x\mathbf {f} _{1}+y\mathbf {f} _{2}+z\mathbf {f} _{3}}

where f1, f2, f3 are the column vectors of matrix A.
A parametric representation of an ellipsoid in general position can be obtained by the parametric representation of a unit sphere (see above) and an affine transformation:

x
 
 (
 θ
 ,
 φ
 )
 =
 
 
 f
 
 
 0
 
 
 +
 
 
 f
 
 
 1
 
 
 cos
 ⁡
 θ
 cos
 ⁡
 φ
 +
 
 
 f
 
 
 2
 
 
 cos
 ⁡
 θ
 sin
 ⁡
 φ
 +
 
 
 f
 
 
 3
 
 
 sin
 ⁡
 θ
 ,
 
 −
 
 
 
 π
 2
 
 
 
 <
 θ
 <
 
 
 
 π
 2
 
 
 
 ,
 
 0
 ≤
 φ
 <
 2
 π
 
 
 {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} (\theta ,\varphi )=\mathbf {f} _{0}+\mathbf {f} _{1}\cos \theta \cos \varphi +\mathbf {f} _{2}\cos \theta \sin \varphi +\mathbf {f} _{3}\sin \theta ,\qquad -{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}<\theta <{\tfrac {\pi }{2}},\quad 0\leq \varphi <2\pi }
 
.
If the vectors f1, f2, f3 form an orthogonal system, the six points with vectors f0 ± f1,2,3 are the vertices of the ellipsoid and |f1|, |f2|, |f3| are the semi-principal axes.
A surface normal vector at point x(θ, φ) is

n
        
        (
        θ
        ,
        φ
        )
        =
        
          
            f
          
          
            2
          
        
        ×
        
          
            f
          
          
            3
          
        
        cos
        ⁡
        θ
        cos
        ⁡
        φ
        +
        
          
            f
          
          
            3
          
        
        ×
        
          
            f
          
          
            1
          
        
        cos
        ⁡
        θ
        sin
        ⁡
        φ
        +
        
          
            f
          
          
            1
          
        
        ×
        
          
            f
          
          
            2
          
        
        sin
        ⁡
        θ
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle \mathbf {n} (\theta ,\varphi )=\mathbf {f} _{2}\times \mathbf {f} _{3}\cos \theta \cos \varphi +\mathbf {f} _{3}\times \mathbf {f} _{1}\cos \theta \sin \varphi +\mathbf {f} _{1}\times \mathbf {f} _{2}\sin \theta .}

For any ellipsoid there exists an <a href="/facts/Implicit_surface/gKpWgFNH">implicit representation</a> F(x, y, z) = 0. If for simplicity the center of the ellipsoid is the origin, f0 = 0, the following equation describes the ellipsoid above:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>

F
        (
        x
        ,
        y
        ,
        z
        )
        =
        det
        ⁡
        
          
            (
            
              
                x
              
              ,
              
                
                  f
                
                
                  2
                
              
              ,
              
                
                  f
                
                
                  3
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        +
        det
        ⁡
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  f
                
                
                  1
                
              
              ,
              
                x
              
              ,
              
                
                  f
                
                
                  3
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        +
        det
        ⁡
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  f
                
                
                  1
                
              
              ,
              
                
                  f
                
                
                  2
                
              
              ,
              
                x
              
            
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        −
        det
        ⁡
        
          
            (
            
              
                
                  f
                
                
                  1
                
              
              ,
              
                
                  f
                
                
                  2
                
              
              ,
              
                
                  f
                
                
                  3
                
              
            
            )
          
          
            2
          
        
        =
        0
      
    
    {\displaystyle F(x,y,z)=\operatorname {det} \left(\mathbf {x} ,\mathbf {f} _{2},\mathbf {f} _{3}\right)^{2}+\operatorname {det} \left(\mathbf {f} _{1},\mathbf {x} ,\mathbf {f} _{3}\right)^{2}+\operatorname {det} \left(\mathbf {f} _{1},\mathbf {f} _{2},\mathbf {x} \right)^{2}-\operatorname {det} \left(\mathbf {f} _{1},\mathbf {f} _{2},\mathbf {f} _{3}\right)^{2}=0}

<h2 id="applications">Applications</h2>
The ellipsoidal shape finds many practical applications:

<a href="/facts/Geodesy/EJH0Te0m">Geodesy</a>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Earth_ellipsoid/l88dGWLD">Earth ellipsoid</a>, a mathematical figure approximating the shape of the <a href="/facts/Earth/HLLmDfj0">Earth</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Reference_ellipsoid/uD1C2sTU">Reference ellipsoid</a>, a mathematical figure approximating the shape of <a href="/facts/Planetary_body/rbPjE6Bx">planetary bodies</a> in general.</li></ul>
<a href="/facts/Mechanics/A3yHLQA5">Mechanics</a>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Poinsot%2527s_ellipsoid/bSakRyKH">Poinsot's ellipsoid</a>, a geometrical method for visualizing the <a href="/facts/Torque-free_precession/44Sk1PMD">torque-free motion</a> of a rotating <a href="/facts/Rigid_body/THezBlq2">rigid body</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Lam%25C3%25A9%2527s_stress_ellipsoid/BlNagkEq">Lamé's stress ellipsoid</a>, an alternative to <a href="/facts/Mohr%2527s_circle/GwCA1EqH">Mohr's circle</a> for the graphical representation of the <a href="/facts/Stress_(mechanics)/ErAXDbbd">stress</a> state at a point.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Manipulability_ellipsoid/vQ3wHzF4">Manipulability ellipsoid</a>, used to describe a robot's freedom of motion.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jacobi_ellipsoid/JSaIqJLU">Jacobi ellipsoid</a>, a triaxial ellipsoid formed by a rotating fluid</li></ul>
<a href="/facts/Crystallography/9B5toeqG">Crystallography</a>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Index_ellipsoid/xbmP4Yfy">Index ellipsoid</a>, a diagram of an ellipsoid that depicts the orientation and relative magnitude of <a href="/facts/Refractive_index/yjkzvgeE">refractive indices</a> in a <a href="/facts/Crystal/e2R2mk3E">crystal</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Thermal_ellipsoid/rs75Fjvz">Thermal ellipsoid</a>, ellipsoids used in crystallography to indicate the magnitudes and directions of the <a href="/facts/Thermal_vibration/eVaKAC7K">thermal vibration</a> of atoms in <a href="/facts/Crystal_structure/bJ4bCeHd">crystal structures</a>.</li></ul>
<h3>Computer science</h3>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Ellipsoid_method/K3SDpleG">Ellipsoid method</a>, a <a href="/facts/Convex_optimization/7D6U4MTN">convex optimization</a> algorithm of theoretical significance</li></ul>
Lighting
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Ellipsoidal_reflector_floodlight/HDbbA6qo">Ellipsoidal reflector floodlight</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ellipsoidal_reflector_spotlight/eIwfGQtf">Ellipsoidal reflector spotlight</a></li></ul>
Medicine
<ul><li>Measurements obtained from <a href="/facts/MRI/Vh9yG9qq">MRI</a> imaging of the <a href="/facts/Prostate/mrBdSsf7">prostate</a> can be used to determine the volume of the gland using the approximation L × W × H × 0.52 (where 0.52 is an approximation for ⁠π/6⁠)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a></li></ul>
<h3>Dynamical properties</h3>
The <a href="/facts/Mass/HHdc8XmF">mass</a> of an ellipsoid of uniform <a href="/facts/Density/92p6hh9I">density</a> ρ is

m
        =
        V
        ρ
        =
        
          
            
              4
              3
            
          
        
        π
        a
        b
        c
        ρ
        .
      
    
    {\displaystyle m=V\rho ={\tfrac {4}{3}}\pi abc\rho .}

The <a href="/facts/Moment_of_Inertia/TpLLAVl7">moments of inertia</a> of an ellipsoid of uniform density are

I
                  
                    
                      x
                      x
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      1
                      5
                    
                  
                
                m
                
                  (
                  
                    
                      b
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                    +
                    
                      c
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                  
                  )
                
                ,
              
              
                
                  I
                  
                    
                      y
                      y
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      1
                      5
                    
                  
                
                m
                
                  (
                  
                    
                      c
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                    +
                    
                      a
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                  
                  )
                
                ,
              
              
                
                  I
                  
                    
                      z
                      z
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  
                    
                      1
                      5
                    
                  
                
                m
                
                  (
                  
                    
                      a
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                    +
                    
                      b
                      
                        2
                      
                    
                  
                  )
                
                ,
              
            
            
              
                
                  I
                  
                    
                      x
                      y
                    
                  
                
              
              
                
                =
                
                  I
                  
                    
                      y
                      z
                    
                  
                
                =
                
                  I
                  
                    
                      z
                      x
                    
                  
                
                =
                0.
              
            
          
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}I_{\mathrm {xx} }&={\tfrac {1}{5}}m\left(b^{2}+c^{2}\right),&I_{\mathrm {yy} }&={\tfrac {1}{5}}m\left(c^{2}+a^{2}\right),&I_{\mathrm {zz} }&={\tfrac {1}{5}}m\left(a^{2}+b^{2}\right),\\[3pt]I_{\mathrm {xy} }&=I_{\mathrm {yz} }=I_{\mathrm {zx} }=0.\end{aligned}}}

For a = b = c these moments of inertia reduce to those for a sphere of uniform density.

Ellipsoids and <a href="/facts/Cuboid/eLLKX4rh">cuboids</a> rotate stably along their major or minor axes, but not along their median axis. This can be seen experimentally by throwing an eraser with some spin. In addition, <a href="/facts/Moment_of_inertia/TpLLAVl7">moment of inertia</a> considerations mean that rotation along the major axis is more easily perturbed than rotation along the minor axis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>
One practical effect of this is that scalene astronomical bodies such as <a href="/facts/Haumea/C1xJDm3B">Haumea</a> generally rotate along their minor axes (as does Earth, which is merely <a href="/facts/Oblate_spheroid/GJyyLxQ7">oblate</a>); in addition, because of <a href="/facts/Tidal_locking/E3W4dEBj">tidal locking</a>, moons in <a href="/facts/Synchronous_orbit/KQgFsoIF">synchronous orbit</a> such as <a href="/facts/Mimas_(moon)/oNQz8Paa">Mimas</a> orbit with their major axis aligned radially to their planet.
A spinning body of homogeneous self-gravitating fluid will assume the form of either a <a href="/facts/Maclaurin_spheroid/XANWjl7a">Maclaurin spheroid</a> (oblate spheroid) or <a href="/facts/Jacobi_ellipsoid/JSaIqJLU">Jacobi ellipsoid</a> (scalene ellipsoid) when in <a href="/facts/Hydrostatic_equilibrium/e75gVkh2">hydrostatic equilibrium</a>, and for moderate rates of rotation. At faster rotations, non-ellipsoidal piriform or <a href="/facts/Oviform/sHC4YNkQ">oviform</a> shapes can be expected, but these are not stable.

<h3>Fluid dynamics</h3>
The ellipsoid is the most general shape for which it has been possible to calculate the <a href="/facts/Creeping_flow/wERn1gCX">creeping flow</a> of fluid around the solid shape. The calculations include the force required to translate through a fluid and to rotate within it. Applications include determining the size and shape of large molecules, the sinking rate of small particles, and the swimming abilities of <a href="/facts/Microorganisms/pysJYcE2">microorganisms</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a>

<h3>In probability and statistics</h3>
The <a href="/facts/Elliptical_distribution/IrHSRhQ8">elliptical distributions</a>, which generalize the <a href="/facts/Multivariate_normal_distribution/2Xfegqz2">multivariate normal distribution</a> and are used in <a href="/facts/Finance/fLh1GgN8">finance</a>, can be defined in terms of their <a href="/facts/Density_function/zvfybna4">density functions</a>. When they exist, the density functions f have the structure:

f
        (
        x
        )
        =
        k
        ⋅
        g
        
          (
          
            (
            
              x
            
            −
            
              μ
            
            )
            
              
                Σ
              
              
                −
                1
              
            
            (
            
              x
            
            −
            
              μ
            
            
              )
              
                
                  T
                
              
            
          
          )
        
      
    
    {\displaystyle f(x)=k\cdot g\left((\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }}){\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{-1}(\mathbf {x} -{\boldsymbol {\mu }})^{\mathsf {T}}\right)}

where k is a scale factor, x is an n-dimensional <a href="/facts/Random_vector/qMfooyVf">random row vector</a> with median vector μ (which is also the mean vector if the latter exists), Σ is a <a href="/facts/Positive_definite_matrix/Hbr6AuPS">positive definite matrix</a> which is proportional to the <a href="/facts/Covariance_matrix/kLhgjHC6">covariance matrix</a> if the latter exists, and g is a function mapping from the non-negative reals to the non-negative reals giving a finite area under the curve.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> The multivariate normal distribution is the special case in which g(z) = exp(−⁠z/2⁠) for quadratic form z.
Thus the density function is a scalar-to-scalar transformation of a quadric expression. Moreover, the equation for any <a href="/facts/Contour_line/35Qten5r">iso-density surface</a> states that the quadric expression equals some constant specific to that value of the density, and the iso-density surface is an ellipsoid.

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Ellipsoidal_dome/YJeow0vR">Ellipsoidal dome</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ellipsoidal_coordinates/7U3CW9hI">Ellipsoidal coordinates</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Elliptical_distribution/IrHSRhQ8">Elliptical distribution</a>, in statistics</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Flattening/32pP4JsR">Flattening</a>, also called <a href="/facts/Ellipticity/32pP4JsR">ellipticity</a> and <a href="/facts/Oblateness/32pP4JsR">oblateness</a>, is a measure of the compression of a circle or sphere along a diameter to form an ellipse or an ellipsoid of revolution (spheroid), respectively.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Focaloid/Exz67YAT">Focaloid</a>, a shell bounded by two concentric, confocal ellipsoids</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Geodesics_on_an_ellipsoid/I4kBSdYu">Geodesics on an ellipsoid</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Geodetic_datum/blgyh87M">Geodetic datum</a>, the gravitational Earth modeled by a best-fitted ellipsoid</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Homoeoid/YLvW5dt7">Homoeoid</a>, a shell bounded by two concentric similar ellipsoids</li>
<li><a href="/facts/John_ellipsoid/70N6wDYd">John ellipsoid</a>, the smallest ellipsoid containing a given convex set.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_surfaces/033mpY7o">List of surfaces</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Superellipsoid/2o33jkTr">Superellipsoid</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Erwin_Kreyszig/uSFtakfs">Kreyszig, Erwin</a> (1972), <a href="https://archive.org/details/advancedengineer00krey">Advanced Engineering Mathematics</a> (3rd ed.), New York: <a href="/facts/John_Wiley_%2526_Sons/53g3LqJc">Wiley</a>, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-471-50728-8</li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ellipsoids.

<ul><li>"<a href="http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/Ellipsoid/">Ellipsoid</a>" by Jeff Bryant, <a href="/facts/Wolfram_Demonstrations_Project/l0sh4gln">Wolfram Demonstrations Project</a>, 2007.</li>
<li><a href="http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Ellipsoid.html">Ellipsoid</a> and <a href="http://mathworld.wolfram.com/QuadraticSurface.html">Quadratic Surface</a>, <a href="/facts/MathWorld/yc1jodbq">MathWorld</a>.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Kreyszig (1972, pp. 455–456) - Kreyszig, Erwin (1972), Advanced Engineering Mathematics (3rd ed.), New York: Wiley, ISBN 0-471-50728-8 <a href="https://archive.org/details/advancedengineer00krey" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/advancedengineer00krey</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">F.W.J. Olver, D.W. Lozier, R.F. Boisvert, and C.W. Clark, editors, 2010, NIST Handbook of Mathematical Functions (Cambridge University Press), Section 19.33 "Triaxial Ellipsoids". Retrieved 2012-01-08. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" target="_blank">/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">"DLMF: 19.2 Definitions". <a href="http://dlmf.nist.gov/19.2" target="_blank">http://dlmf.nist.gov/19.2</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">"Surface Area of an Ellipsoid". analyticphysics.com. Retrieved 2024-07-23. <a href="https://analyticphysics.com/Mathematical%20Methods/Surface%20Area%20of%20an%20Ellipsoid.htm" target="_blank">https://analyticphysics.com/Mathematical%20Methods/Surface%20Area%20of%20an%20Ellipsoid.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">"DLMF: §19.20 Special Cases ‣ Symmetric Integrals ‣ Chapter 19 Elliptic Integrals". dlmf.nist.gov. Retrieved 2024-07-23. <a href="https://dlmf.nist.gov/19.20#ii" target="_blank">https://dlmf.nist.gov/19.20#ii</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Weisstein., Eric. "Prolate Spheroid". Wolfram MathWorld (Wolfram Research). Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 25 March 2018. <a href="http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ProlateSpheroid.html" target="_blank">http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ProlateSpheroid.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Final answers Archived 2011-09-30 at the Wayback Machine by Gerard P. Michon (2004-05-13). See Thomsen's formulas and Cantrell's comments. <a href="http://www.numericana.com/answer/ellipsoid.htm#thomsen" target="_blank">http://www.numericana.com/answer/ellipsoid.htm#thomsen</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Albert, Abraham Adrian (2016) [1949], Solid Analytic Geometry, Dover, p. 117, ISBN 978-0-486-81026-3 <a href="978-0-486-81026-3" target="_blank">978-0-486-81026-3</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">W. Böhm: Die FadenKonstruktion der Flächen zweiter Ordnung, Mathemat. Nachrichten 13, 1955, S. 151 <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Staude, O.: Ueber Fadenconstructionen des Ellipsoides. Math. Ann. 20, 147–184 (1882) <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Staude, O.: Ueber neue Focaleigenschaften der Flächen 2. Grades. Math. Ann. 27, 253–271 (1886). <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Staude, O.: Die algebraischen Grundlagen der Focaleigenschaften der Flächen 2. Ordnung Math. Ann. 50, 398 - 428 (1898). <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">D. Hilbert & S Cohn-Vossen: Geometry and the imagination, Chelsea New York, 1952, ISBN 0-8284-1087-9, p. 20 . <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">O. Hesse: Analytische Geometrie des Raumes, Teubner, Leipzig 1861, p. 287 <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">D. Hilbert & S Cohn-Vossen: Geometry and the Imagination, p. 24 <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">O. Hesse: Analytische Geometrie des Raumes, p. 301 <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">W. Blaschke: Analytische Geometrie, p. 125 <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Grötschel, Martin; Lovász, László; Schrijver, Alexander (1993), Geometric algorithms and combinatorial optimization, Algorithms and Combinatorics, vol. 2 (2nd ed.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-78240-4, ISBN 978-3-642-78242-8, MR 1261419 <a href="978-3-642-78242-8" target="_blank">978-3-642-78242-8</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">"Lecture 15 – Symmetric matrices, quadratic forms, matrix norm, and SVD" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-06-26. Retrieved 2013-10-12. pp. 17–18. <a href="http://see.stanford.edu/materials/lsoeldsee263/15-symm.pdf" target="_blank">http://see.stanford.edu/materials/lsoeldsee263/15-symm.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Grötschel, Martin; Lovász, László; Schrijver, Alexander (1993), Geometric algorithms and combinatorial optimization, Algorithms and Combinatorics, vol. 2 (2nd ed.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-78240-4, ISBN 978-3-642-78242-8, MR 1261419 <a href="978-3-642-78242-8" target="_blank">978-3-642-78242-8</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Computerunterstützte Darstellende und Konstruktive Geometrie. Archived 2013-11-10 at the Wayback Machine Uni Darmstadt (PDF; 3,4 MB), S. 88. <a href="http://www.mathematik.tu-darmstadt.de/~ehartmann/cdg-skript-1998.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.mathematik.tu-darmstadt.de/~ehartmann/cdg-skript-1998.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Bezinque, Adam; et al. (2018). "Determination of Prostate Volume: A Comparison of Contemporary Methods". Academic Radiology. 25 (12): 1582–1587. doi:10.1016/j.acra.2018.03.014. PMID 29609953. S2CID 4621745. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Goldstein, H G (1980). Classical Mechanics, (2nd edition) Chapter 5. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Dusenbery, David B. (2009).Living at Micro Scale, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Frahm, G., Junker, M., & Szimayer, A. (2003). Elliptical copulas: applicability and limitations. Statistics & Probability Letters, 63(3), 275–286. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Ellipsoid open-in-new

Ellipsoid