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Mesopropithecus
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<h2 id="classification-and-phylogeny">Classification and phylogeny</h2> <p><i>Mesopropithecus</i> is a <a href="/facts/Genus/m8EFjSms">genus</a> within the <a href="/facts/Sloth_lemur/uMMrUfmD">sloth lemur</a> <a href="/facts/Family_(biology)/qTrn6E8E">family</a> (Palaeopropithecidae), which includes three other genera: <i><a href="/facts/Palaeopropithecus/VrS5ak24">Palaeopropithecus</a></i>, <i><a href="/facts/Archaeoindris/n6ye95lu">Archaeoindris</a></i>, and <i><a href="/facts/Babakotia/VYCLbp5A">Babakotia</a></i>. This family in turn belongs to the infraorder Lemuriformes, which includes all the Malagasy <a href="/facts/Lemur/lgLEmFnr">lemurs</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> </p><p><i>Mesopropithecus</i> was named in 1905 by <a href="/facts/Herbert_F._Standing/VmCGEI7e">Herbert F. Standing</a> using four skulls found at Ampasambazimba. He noted that the animal had characteristics of both <i>Palaeopropithecus</i> and the living <a href="/facts/Sifaka/uxrN2mJo">sifakas</a> (<i>Propithecus</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> In 1936, Charles Lamberton defined <i>Neopropithecus globiceps</i> (based on one skull from Tsirave) and <i>N. platyfrons</i> (based on two skulls from Anavoha). He thought that <i>Neopropithecus</i> was a separate, intermediate genus between <i>Mesopropithecus</i> and <i>Propithecus</i>. In 1971, <a href="/facts/Paleoanthropologist/Umjg0sUn">paleoanthropologist</a> <a href="/facts/Ian_Tattersall/xNou81ah">Ian Tattersall</a> merged <i>N. platyfrons</i> into <i>N. globiceps</i> and <i>Neopropithecus</i> into <i>Mesopropithecus</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p><p>Until 1986, <i>Mesopropithecus</i> was only known from <a href="/facts/Skull/A9Wp63Np">cranial</a> (skull) remains from central and southern Madagascar, and because these are similar to teeth and skulls of living <a href="/facts/Indriidae/yoQLtzpL">indriids</a>, particularly those of <a href="/facts/Verreaux%2527s_sifaka/n5TLCG0D">Verreaux's sifaka</a> (<i>Propithecus verreauxi</i>), <i>Mesopropithecus</i> was often assigned to the family Indriidae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> For example, in 1974, Tattersall and Schwartz labeled <i>Mesopropithecus</i> as a <a href="/facts/Cladistics/JasKVABk">sister group</a> to sifakas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> With the discovery of an associated skeleton of <i>M. dolichobrachion</i> near Ankarana in 1986, it became clear that <i>Mesopropithecus</i> shared distinct traits with sloth lemurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> Unlike the indriids, but like the sloth lemurs, they had elongated forelimbs and other adaptations for arboreal <a href="/facts/Suspensory_behavior/Ma9aVERL">suspension</a> (hanging in trees), linking them most closely to family Paleaeopropithecidae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> A comparison of these morphological traits between the sloth lemurs and indriids suggest that <i>Mesopropithecus</i> was the first genus to diverge within the sloth lemur family.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p> <h3>Species</h3> <p>Three species are recognized within <i>Mesopropithecus</i>:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p> <ul><li><i>M. pithecoides</i>, described in 1905, was the first species to be formally named.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Its <a href="/facts/Specific_name_(zoology)/RuH34bxb">specific name</a>, <i>pithecoides</i>, derives from the Greek word <i>pithekos</i>, meaning "monkey" or "ape", and the Greek suffix <i>-oides</i>, meaning "like" or "form", and reflects Standing's impression that the animal resembled monkeys in form.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> It was a small to medium-sized lemur,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> weighing approximately 10 kg (22 lb) and having an <a href="/facts/Intermembral_index/j20vukF3">intermembral index</a> (ratio of limb proportions) of 99.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Its skull was similar to that of <i>M. globiceps</i>, but had a broader snout and was more robust, particularly in its <a href="/facts/Sagittal_crest/Mjm0QXDr">sagittal</a> and <a href="/facts/Nuchal_crest/K1BnLeSj">nuchal crests</a> (ridges on the skull for muscle attachments) and massive <a href="/facts/Zygomatic_arch/KokazFsE">zygomatic arches</a> (cheekbones).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Its skull length averaged 98 mm (3.9 in),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> ranging from 94.0 to 103.1 mm (3.70 to 4.06 in).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> It was predominantly <a href="/facts/Folivorous/ANbmpaPa">folivorous</a> (leaf-eating), but also consumed some fruit and (rarely) seeds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> It was moderately abundant on the high, <a href="/facts/Central_Highlands_(Madagascar)/cpYHpEW1">central plateau</a> of Madagascar.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> It shared its range with the larger sloth lemurs, <i><a href="/facts/Palaeopropithecus/VrS5ak24">Palaeopropithecus maximus</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Archaeoindris/n6ye95lu">Archaeoindris fontoynontii</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> One sample of its subfossil remains has been <a href="/facts/Radiocarbon_dating/qjNglhKP">radiocarbon dated</a>, yielding a date of 570–679 <a href="/facts/Common_Era/e5DpqUoe">CE</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></li> <li><i>M. globiceps</i> was discovered in 1936 and originally classified in its own genus, <i>Neopropithecus</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> The name <i>globiceps</i> comes from its prominent forehead<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> and derives from the <a href="/facts/Latin_language/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> word <i>globus</i>, meaning "ball", and the <a href="/facts/Neo-Latin/mbBrTVEd">Neo-Latin</a> suffix <i>-ceps</i>, meaning "head".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> Like <i>M. pithecoides</i>, it was a small to medium-sized lemur,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> weighing approximately 11 kg (24 lb) and having an intermembral index of 97.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> It had the most narrow snout and gracile skeleton of the <i>Mesopropithecus</i> species, similar to but smaller than <i>M. pithecoides</i>, making it more like the living sifakas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Its teeth were similar to but larger than those of living sifakas, except for its lower premolars, which were shorter, and the M3 (third upper molar), which was moderately constricted by the cheek and tongue. Its skull length averaged 94 mm (3.7 in),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> ranging from 93.4 to 94.8 mm (3.68 to 3.73 in).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> It was a mixed feeder, eating fruit, leaves, and a moderate amount of seeds,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> having a diet similar to that of the living <a href="/facts/Indri/jMIAtTpS">indri</a> (<i>Indri indri</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> Although its forelimbs were more like those of living indriids, its hindlimbs and <a href="/facts/Axial_skeleton/mNCwdBkw">axial skeleton</a> (skull, spine, and ribs) were more specialized for suspension, as in <i>Palaeopropithecus</i> and <i>Babakotia</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> It was found in the south and west of Madagascar.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> Three samples of its subfossil remains have been radiocarbon dated, yielding dates of 354–60 BCE, 58–247 CE, and 245–429 CE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a></li> <li><i>M. dolichobrachion</i> was discovered in 1986 and formally described in 1995. It was found in the caves of <a href="/facts/Ankarana/KUEazKca">Ankarana</a>, northern Madagascar, around the same time that the first remains of <i>Babakotia</i> were unearthed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> The species name <i>dolichobrachion</i> is Greek, coming from <i>dolicho-</i> ("long") and <i>brachion</i> ("arm"), and means "long-armed".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> It was a medium-sized lemur,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> slightly larger than the other two members of its genus,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> weighing approximately 14 kg (31 lb).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> It differed significantly from the other two in its limb proportions and its <a href="/facts/Postcrania/44CA9mLK">postcranial</a> morphology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> Most notably, it was the only species in the genus to have <a href="/facts/Forelimb/4hLM1JaC">forelimbs</a> that were longer than the <a href="/facts/Hindlimb/hVIIXoQu">hindlimbs</a>, due to a substantially longer and more robust <a href="/facts/Humerus/9h0R2GuY">humerus</a> (yielding an intermembral index of 113), as well as more curved <a href="/facts/Phalanx_bone/ekWXmFh7">phalanges</a> (finger and toe bones).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> For these reasons, it is thought to have been more <a href="/facts/Sloth/r97Q11Ls">sloth</a>-like in its use of suspension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> This was further supported by a study of a single <a href="/facts/Lumbar_vertebra/BytnlsNy">lumbar vertebra</a>. This vertebra was similar to that of <i>Babakotia</i> in having a moderately reduced, dorsally oriented <a href="/facts/Spinous_process/qAdLhD5H">spinous process</a> and a transverse processes (plates of bone that protrude from the <a href="/facts/Vertebrae/Nuw1kV7o">vertebrae</a>) that points to the side (laterally). The vertebra was intermediate in length when compared with other sloth lemurs, and its <a href="/facts/Lamina_of_the_vertebral_arch/qAdLhD5H">laminae</a> (two plates of bone that connect to the spinous process) were not as broad as seen in <i>Palaeopropithecus</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> In <i>M. dolichobrachion</i>, skull length averaged 102 mm (4.0 in),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> ranging from 97.8 to 105.5 mm (3.85 to 4.15 in).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> The only notable difference from the two other species in its teeth was that the third upper molar had a relatively wider trigon and smaller talon (groups of <a href="/facts/Cusp_(dentistry)/s3rL9ldd">cusps</a> on the molar teeth).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> It was a mixed feeder, eating leaves, fruits, and seeds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> This species was more of a <a href="/facts/Seed_predation/4Cbuef4k">seed predator</a> than the other two species, but was not as specialized as closely related <i><a href="/facts/Babakotia_radofilai/VYCLbp5A">Babakotia radofilai</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> <i>M. dolichobrachion</i> was rare<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> and shared its range with two other sloth lemurs, <i>Babakotia radofilai</i> and <i><a href="/facts/Palaeopropithecus/VrS5ak24">Palaeopropithecus maximus</a></i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> It was the most distinct member of its genus and was geographically restricted to the extreme north of the island.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a></li></ul> <h2 id="anatomy-and-physiology">Anatomy and physiology</h2> <table><tbody><tr><td><i>Mesopropithecus</i> placement within the lemur phylogeny<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><table><tbody><tr><td><a href="/facts/Lemur/lgLEmFnr">Lemuriformes</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Daubentonia/vlt4pybd">Daubentoniidae</a></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<a href="/facts/Koala_lemur/YDV0F4nS">Megaladapidae</a></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Lemuridae/Hg9j4thL">Lemuridae</a></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Cheirogaleidae/ysqjVpyE">Cheirogaleidae</a></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Sportive_lemur/9WT40D6E">Lepilemuridae</a></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<a href="/facts/Monkey_lemur/TsgXwxN1">Archaeolemuridae</a></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td>†<a href="/facts/Sloth_lemur/uMMrUfmD">Palaeopropithecidae</a></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td>†<i>Mesopropithecus</i></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<i>M. globiceps</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<i>M. pithecoides</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<i>M. dolichobrachion</i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<i><a href="/facts/Babakotia/VYCLbp5A">Babakotia</a></i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><table><tbody><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<i><a href="/facts/Palaeopropithecus/VrS5ak24">Palaeopropithecus</a></i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p>†<i><a href="/facts/Archaeoindris/n6ye95lu">Archaeoindris</a></i></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td rowspan="2"><p><a href="/facts/Indriidae/yoQLtzpL">Indriidae</a></p></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The genus <i>Mesopropithecus</i> includes some of the smallest of the recently extinct <a href="/facts/Subfossil_lemur/zH2drU9V">subfossil lemurs</a>, but all species were still noticeably larger than all living (<a href="/facts/Extant_taxon/YK8uj7qU">extant</a>) lemurs. They ranged in weight from 10 to 14 kg (22 to 31 lb).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> They were also the least specialized of the sloth lemurs, more closely resembling living indriids in both skull and postcranial characteristics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> Skull length ranged from 93.4 to 105.5 mm (3.68 to 4.15 in).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Dentition/yMEdzfHh">dentition</a> and cranial proportions, however, more closely resembled those of the sifakas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Dental_formula/yMEdzfHh">dental formula</a> of <i>Mesopropithecus</i> was the same as in the other sloth lemur and indriids: either 2.1.2.31.1.2.3<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> or 2.1.2.32.0.2.3 × 2 = 30.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> <i>Mesopropithecus</i> had a four-toothed <a href="/facts/Toothcomb/qCjKwBT1">toothcomb</a>, like all indriids and most other sloth lemurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> It is unclear whether one of the <a href="/facts/Permanent_teeth/76MtaDgv">permanent teeth</a> in the toothcomb is an <a href="/facts/Incisor/GSvkE9Tg">incisor</a> or <a href="/facts/Canine_tooth/p3mRABtg">canine</a>, resulting in the two conflicting dental formulae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> Like other sloth lemurs and indriids, <i>Mesopropithecus</i> had rapid <a href="/facts/Animal_tooth_development/YVsaE4cp">tooth development</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> </p><p>Despite the similarities, there are several features that distinguish <i>Mesopropithecus</i> skulls from those of living indriids. The skull, including the zygomatic arch, is more robustly built. The <a href="/facts/Temporal_line/DqICftoA">temporal lines</a> join together anteriorly into a sagittal crest and there is a distinct nuchal ridge that joins the rear of the zygomatic arch. The skull has a more rounded <a href="/facts/Braincase/dzqkVdLQ">braincase</a>, slightly smaller and more convergent <a href="/facts/Orbit_(anatomy)/lJTMFcqy">orbits</a>, more pronounced <a href="/facts/Postorbital_constriction/TrawjcuY">postorbital constriction</a> (narrowing of the skull behind the eye sockets), more robust <a href="/facts/Postorbital_bar/toanmvzn">postorbital bar</a> (bone that encircles the eye socket), a steeper facial angle, more robust and cranially convex zygomatic bone, and a broader, squared snout. The upper <a href="/facts/Incisor/GSvkE9Tg">incisors</a> and <a href="/facts/Canine_tooth/p3mRABtg">canines</a> are larger.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> The more robust <a href="/facts/Mandible/1ATEfAQa">mandible</a> (lower jaw) and <a href="/facts/Mandibular_symphysis/Ia0g0hwn">mandibular symphysis</a> (point where the two halves of the lower jaw meet) suggest a more folivorous diet, which requires extra grinding. The orbits are as large (in absolute size) as those in smaller living indriids,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> which suggests low <a href="/facts/Visual_acuity/1hj2u0ej">visual acuity</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> <i>Mesopropithecus</i> and its closest sloth lemur relative, <i>Babakotia</i>, did share a few ancestral traits with indriids, unlike the largest sloth lemurs, <i>Palaeopropithecus</i> and <i>Archaeoindris</i>. These include the aforementioned four-toothed toothcomb, an inflated <a href="/facts/Auditory_bulla/BfQE8enj">auditory bulla</a> (bony structure that encloses part of the middle and inner ear), and an intrabullar <a href="/facts/Ectotympanic_ring/eHqvTu8b">ectotympanic ring</a> (bony ring that holds the eardrum).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> </p><p>While the skull of <i>Mesopropithecus</i> most closely resembles that of modern sifakas, the postcranial skeleton is quite different. Rather than having elongated hindlimbs for <a href="/facts/Leaping/UIYAIIFU">leaping</a>, <i>Mesopropithecus</i> had elongated <a href="/facts/Forelimb/4hLM1JaC">forelimbs</a>, suggesting they predominantly used <a href="/facts/Quadrupedal/KMVYdsYf">quadrupedal</a> locomotion, slow climbing, with some forelimb and <a href="/facts/Hindlimb/hVIIXoQu">hindlimb</a> suspension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> In fact, they were the most quadrupedal of the sloth lemurs,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> having an intermembral index between 97 and 113, compared to the lower value for indriids and higher values for the other sloth lemurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> (In arboreal primates, an intermembral index of 100 predicts quadrupedalism, higher values predict suspensory behavior, and lower values predict leaping behavior.)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> Wrist bones found in 1999 further demonstrate that <i>Mesopropithecus</i> was a vertical climber<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> and the most <a href="/facts/Loris/cqAzNFH0">loris</a>-like of the sloth lemurs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> Analysis of a lumbar vertebra of <i>M. dolichobrachion</i> further supported this conclusion.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> </p><p>Our understanding of the morphology of <i>Mesopropithecus</i> has not always been so complete. Until recently, important pieces of the skeleton had not been discovered, including the <a href="/facts/Radius_(bone)/TstRh60d">radius</a>, <a href="/facts/Ulna/6J7D2mhe">ulna</a>, <a href="/facts/Vertebra/qAdLhD5H">vertebrae</a>, hand and foot bones, and the <a href="/facts/Pelvis/8Fq9z3TY">pelvis</a>. In 1936, Alice Carleton mistakenly associated postcranial remains of the <a href="/facts/Diademed_sifaka/eMkWIz9d">diademed sifaka</a> (<i>Propithecus diadema</i>) from Ampasambazimba with <i>Mesopropithecus pithecoides</i> and came to the false conclusion that its morphology was like that of a monkey. This mistaken attribution was corrected in 1948 by Charles Lamberton.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="distribution-and-ecology">Distribution and ecology</h2> <p><i>Mesopropithecus</i> species appear to have been generally rare within their wide range. Collectively, the three species have been found in the north, south, west, and center of Madagascar,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a> although they appear to have been geographically separated (allopatric) from each other.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Subfossil/SJpdD4Fd">Subfossil</a> discoveries indicate that they lived in the same region (<a href="/facts/Sympatric/wsPKQEeU">sympatric</a>) with other sloth lemurs in the north and center of Madagascar.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a> The subfossil remains of <i>M. globiceps</i> have been found at seven subfossil sites on Madagascar: Anavoha, Ankazoabo Cave, <a href="/facts/Belo_sur_Mer/qTfHGcMI">Belo sur Mer</a>, Manombo-Toliara, Taolambiby, Tsiandroina, Tsirave.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a> The subfossil remains of both <i>M. pithecoides</i> and <i>M. dolichobrachion</i> have only been found at one site each, <a href="/facts/Ampasambazimba/SXJq6wY0">Ampasambazimba</a> and <a href="/facts/Ankarana/KUEazKca">Ankarana</a> respectively.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a> </p><p><i>M. pithecoides</i> from the central plateau was a specialized leaf-eater (folivore), but the other two species had a more mixed diet, eating fruits and seeds in addition to leaves.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a> The level of seed predation varies between the three species, with tooth wear indicating that <i>M. dolichobrachion</i> exhibited the greatest level of seed predation within the genus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="extinction">Extinction</h2> <p>Because <i>Mesopropithecus</i> died out relatively recently and is only known from subfossil remains, it is considered to be a modern form of Malagasy lemur.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a> It may have been among the last subfossil lemurs to go extinct, possibly surviving until 500 years ago,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a> although radiocarbon dating places the most recent remains at 570–679 CE for a <i>M. pithecoides</i> from Ampasambazimba.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a> The arrival of humans roughly 2,000 years ago is thought to have sparked the decline of <i>Mesopropithecus</i> through hunting, <a href="/facts/Habitat_destruction/pyPMkBCY">habitat destruction</a>, or both.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a> </p> Books cited <ul><li>Ankel-Simons, F. (2007). <i>Primate Anatomy</i> (3rd ed.). Academic Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-12-372576-9.</li> <li>Borror, D.J. (1988). <a href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf"><i>Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining Forms</i></a>. Mayfield Publishing Company. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-87484-053-7. (Note: this book was first published 1960)</li> <li>Goodman, S.M.; Benstead, J.P., eds. (2003). <i>The Natural History of Madagascar</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-226-30306-2.</li></ul> <ul><li>Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L. (2003). <i>Subfossil Lemurs</i>. pp. 1247–1252.</li></ul> <ul><li>Goodman, S.M.; Patterson, B.D., eds. (1997). <i>Natural Change and Human Impact in Madagascar</i>. Smithsonian Institution Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-56098-682-9.</li></ul> <ul><li>Simons, E.L. (1997). <i>Chapter 6: Lemurs: Old and New</i>. pp. 142–166.</li> <li>Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; <a href="/facts/Kaye_Reed/yTdBHRh4">Reed, K.E.</a>; Simons, E.L.; Chatrath, P.S. (1997). <i>Chapter 8: Subfossil Lemurs</i>. pp. 218–256.</li></ul> <ul><li>Gould, L.; Sauther, M.L., eds. (2006). <i>Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptation</i>. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-387-34585-7.</li></ul> <ul><li>Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Schwartz, G.T. (2006). <i>Chapter 3: Ecology and Extinction of Madagascar's Subfossil Lemurs</i>. pp. 41–64.</li></ul> <ul><li>Hartwig, Walter Carl (2002). Hartwig, W.C. (ed.). <i>The Primate Fossil Record</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 544. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002prfr.book.....H">2002prfr.book.....H</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-66315-1.</li></ul> <ul><li>Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L. (2002). <i>Chapter 7: Quaternary fossil lemurs</i>. pp. 108–110.</li></ul> <ul><li>McKenna, M.C.; Bell, S.K. (1997). <i>Classification of Mammals: Above the Species Level</i>. Columbia University Press. p. 336. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-231-11013-6.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Russell_Mittermeier/hn2Nv1ly">Mittermeier, R.A.</a>; Konstant, W.R.; Hawkins, F.; <a href="/facts/Edward_E._Louis%2c_Jr./bDpFwe3l">Louis, E.E.</a>; et al. (2006). <i><a href="/facts/Lemurs_of_Madagascar_(book)/I322E0f9">Lemurs of Madagascar</a></i>. Illustrated by S.D. Nash (2nd ed.). <a href="/facts/Conservation_International/G687YBDc">Conservation International</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-881173-88-7. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883321520">883321520</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Russell_Mittermeier/hn2Nv1ly">Mittermeier, R.A.</a>; <a href="/facts/Ian_Tattersall/xNou81ah">Tattersall, I.</a>; Konstant, W.R.; Meyers, D.M.; Mast, R.B. (1994). <i><a href="/facts/Lemurs_of_Madagascar_(book)/I322E0f9">Lemurs of Madagascar</a></i>. Illustrated by S.D. Nash (1st ed.). <a href="/facts/Conservation_International/G687YBDc">Conservation International</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-881173-08-9. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32480729">32480729</a>.</li> <li>Nowak, R.M. (1999). <a href="https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa"><i>Walker's Mammals of the World</i></a> (6th ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8018-5789-8.</li> <li>Sussman, R.W. (2003). <i>Primate Ecology and Social Structure</i>. Pearson Custom Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-536-74363-3.</li> <li>Werdelin, L.; Sanders, W.J., eds. (2010). <i>Cenozoic Mammals of Africa</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-520-25721-4.</li></ul> <ul><li>Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). <i>Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar</i>.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Nowak 1999, pp. 89–91 - Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Standing, H.F. (1905). "Rapport sur des ossements sub-fossiles provenant d'Ampasambazimba" [Report on subfossil bones from Ampasambazimba]. Bulletin de l'Académie malgache (in French). 4: 95–100. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Godfrey & Jungers 2002, pp. 108–110 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L. (2002). Chapter 7: Quaternary fossil lemurs. pp. 108–110. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Nowak 1999, pp. 89–91 - Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Mittermeier et al. 1994, pp. 33–48 - Mittermeier, R.A.; Tattersall, I.; Konstant, W.R.; Meyers, D.M.; Mast, R.B. (1994). Lemurs of Madagascar. Illustrated by S.D. Nash (1st ed.). Conservation International. ISBN 1-881173-08-9. OCLC 32480729. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32480729" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32480729</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Simons, E.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Chatrath, P.S.; Ravaoarisoa, J. (1995). "A new species of Mesopropithecus (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) from Northern Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 15 (5): 653–682. doi:10.1007/BF02735287. S2CID 21431569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Godfrey & Jungers 2002, pp. 108–110 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L. (2002). Chapter 7: Quaternary fossil lemurs. pp. 108–110. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Mittermeier et al. 1994, pp. 33–48 - Mittermeier, R.A.; Tattersall, I.; Konstant, W.R.; Meyers, D.M.; Mast, R.B. (1994). Lemurs of Madagascar. Illustrated by S.D. Nash (1st ed.). Conservation International. ISBN 1-881173-08-9. OCLC 32480729. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32480729" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32480729</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Godfrey & Jungers 2003, pp. 1247–1252 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L. (2003). Subfossil Lemurs. pp. 1247–1252. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L. (2003a). "The extinct sloth lemurs of Madagascar" (PDF). Evolutionary Anthropology. 12 (6): 252–263. doi:10.1002/evan.10123. S2CID 4834725. <a href="http://bork.hampshire.edu/~josiah/EVANarticle.pdf" target="_blank">http://bork.hampshire.edu/~josiah/EVANarticle.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Nowak 1999, pp. 89–91 - Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Godfrey & Jungers 2002, pp. 108–110 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L. (2002). Chapter 7: Quaternary fossil lemurs. pp. 108–110. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Nowak 1999, pp. 89–91 - Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Standing, H.F. (1905). "Rapport sur des ossements sub-fossiles provenant d'Ampasambazimba" [Report on subfossil bones from Ampasambazimba]. Bulletin de l'Académie malgache (in French). 4: 95–100. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Borror 1988, p. 76 - Borror, D.J. (1988). Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining Forms. Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87484-053-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Borror 1988, p. 66 - Borror, D.J. (1988). Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining Forms. Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87484-053-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Sussman 2003, pp. 107–148 - Sussman, R.W. (2003). Primate Ecology and Social Structure. Pearson Custom Publishing. ISBN 978-0-536-74363-3. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Nowak 1999, pp. 89–91 - Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Simons, E.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Chatrath, P.S.; Ravaoarisoa, J. (1995). "A new species of Mesopropithecus (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) from Northern Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 15 (5): 653–682. doi:10.1007/BF02735287. S2CID 21431569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Mittermeier et al. 2006, pp. 37–51 - Mittermeier, R.A.; Konstant, W.R.; Hawkins, F.; Louis, E.E.; et al. (2006). Lemurs of Madagascar. Illustrated by S.D. Nash (2nd ed.). Conservation International. ISBN 1-881173-88-7. OCLC 883321520. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883321520" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883321520</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Godfrey, L.R.; Semprebon, G.M.; Jungers, W.L.; Sutherland, M.R.; Simons, E.L.; Solounias, N. (2004). "Dental use wear in extinct lemurs: evidence of diet and niche differentiation" (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. 47 (3): 145–169. Bibcode:2004JHumE..47..145G. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.06.003. PMID 15337413. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-30. Retrieved 2010-08-24. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120330220100/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/krigbaum/proseminar/Godfrey_etal_2004_JHE.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120330220100/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/krigbaum/proseminar/Godfrey_etal_2004_JHE.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Sussman 2003, pp. 107–148 - Sussman, R.W. (2003). Primate Ecology and Social Structure. Pearson Custom Publishing. ISBN 978-0-536-74363-3. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Mittermeier et al. 2006, pp. 37–51 - Mittermeier, R.A.; Konstant, W.R.; Hawkins, F.; Louis, E.E.; et al. (2006). Lemurs of Madagascar. Illustrated by S.D. Nash (2nd ed.). Conservation International. ISBN 1-881173-88-7. OCLC 883321520. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883321520" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883321520</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Godfrey et al. 1997, pp. 218–256 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Reed, K.E.; Simons, E.L.; Chatrath, P.S. (1997). Chapter 8: Subfossil Lemurs. pp. 218–256. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Godfrey et al. 1997, pp. 218–256 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Reed, K.E.; Simons, E.L.; Chatrath, P.S. (1997). Chapter 8: Subfossil Lemurs. pp. 218–256. <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Nowak 1999, pp. 89–91 - Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Lamberton, C. (1936). "Nouveaux lémuriens fossiles du groupe des Propithèques et l'intérêt de leur découverte" [New fossil lemurs of the group Propithecus and the significance of their discovery]. Bulletin du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. 2 (in French). 8: 370–373. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Borror 1988, p. 43 - Borror, D.J. (1988). Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining Forms. Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87484-053-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Borror 1988, p. 23 - Borror, D.J. (1988). Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining Forms. Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87484-053-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Sussman 2003, pp. 107–148 - Sussman, R.W. (2003). Primate Ecology and Social Structure. Pearson Custom Publishing. ISBN 978-0-536-74363-3. <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Nowak 1999, pp. 89–91 - Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Simons, E.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Chatrath, P.S.; Ravaoarisoa, J. (1995). "A new species of Mesopropithecus (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) from Northern Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 15 (5): 653–682. doi:10.1007/BF02735287. S2CID 21431569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Mittermeier et al. 2006, pp. 37–51 - Mittermeier, R.A.; Konstant, W.R.; Hawkins, F.; Louis, E.E.; et al. (2006). Lemurs of Madagascar. Illustrated by S.D. Nash (2nd ed.). Conservation International. ISBN 1-881173-88-7. OCLC 883321520. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883321520" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883321520</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Godfrey, L.R.; Semprebon, G.M.; Jungers, W.L.; Sutherland, M.R.; Simons, E.L.; Solounias, N. (2004). "Dental use wear in extinct lemurs: evidence of diet and niche differentiation" (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. 47 (3): 145–169. Bibcode:2004JHumE..47..145G. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.06.003. PMID 15337413. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-30. Retrieved 2010-08-24. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120330220100/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/krigbaum/proseminar/Godfrey_etal_2004_JHE.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120330220100/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/krigbaum/proseminar/Godfrey_etal_2004_JHE.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Godfrey et al. 1997, pp. 218–256 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Reed, K.E.; Simons, E.L.; Chatrath, P.S. (1997). Chapter 8: Subfossil Lemurs. pp. 218–256. <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Simons, E.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Chatrath, P.S.; Ravaoarisoa, J. (1995). "A new species of Mesopropithecus (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) from Northern Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 15 (5): 653–682. doi:10.1007/BF02735287. S2CID 21431569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Simons, E.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Chatrath, P.S.; Ravaoarisoa, J. (1995). "A new species of Mesopropithecus (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) from Northern Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 15 (5): 653–682. doi:10.1007/BF02735287. S2CID 21431569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Borror 1988, p. 33 - Borror, D.J. (1988). Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining Forms. Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87484-053-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Borror 1988, p. 58 - Borror, D.J. (1988). Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining Forms. Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87484-053-7. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofword00mayf</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Sussman 2003, pp. 107–148 - Sussman, R.W. (2003). Primate Ecology and Social Structure. Pearson Custom Publishing. ISBN 978-0-536-74363-3. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Simons, E.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Chatrath, P.S.; Ravaoarisoa, J. (1995). "A new species of Mesopropithecus (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) from Northern Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 15 (5): 653–682. doi:10.1007/BF02735287. S2CID 21431569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Simons, E.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Chatrath, P.S.; Ravaoarisoa, J. (1995). "A new species of Mesopropithecus (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) from Northern Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 15 (5): 653–682. doi:10.1007/BF02735287. S2CID 21431569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Godfrey et al. 1997, pp. 218–256 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Reed, K.E.; Simons, E.L.; Chatrath, P.S. (1997). Chapter 8: Subfossil Lemurs. pp. 218–256. <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Simons, E.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Chatrath, P.S.; Ravaoarisoa, J. (1995). "A new species of Mesopropithecus (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) from Northern Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 15 (5): 653–682. doi:10.1007/BF02735287. S2CID 21431569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Simons 1997, pp. 142–166 - Simons, E.L. (1997). Chapter 6: Lemurs: Old and New. pp. 142–166. <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>Jungers, W.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Simons, E.L.; Chatrath, P.S.; Williamson, J.R. (1997). "Phalangeal curvature and positional behavior in extinct sloth lemurs (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 94 (1): 11998–12001. Bibcode:1997PNAS...9411998J. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.22.11998. PMC 23681. PMID 11038588. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC23681" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC23681</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Sussman 2003, pp. 107–148 - Sussman, R.W. (2003). Primate Ecology and Social Structure. Pearson Custom Publishing. ISBN 978-0-536-74363-3. <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Simons 1997, pp. 142–166 - Simons, E.L. (1997). Chapter 6: Lemurs: Old and New. pp. 142–166. <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Shapiro, L.J.; Seiffert, C.V.M.; Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Simons, E.L.; Randria, G.F.N. (2005). "Morphometric analysis of lumbar vertebrae in extinct Malagasy strepsirrhines" (PDF). American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 128 (4): 823–839. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20122. PMID 16110476. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-12. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110612110330/http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~lshapiro/new/pub-Shapiroetal2005.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110612110330/http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~lshapiro/new/pub-Shapiroetal2005.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>Simons, E.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Chatrath, P.S.; Ravaoarisoa, J. (1995). "A new species of Mesopropithecus (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) from Northern Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 15 (5): 653–682. doi:10.1007/BF02735287. S2CID 21431569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:68"><p>Mittermeier et al. 2006, pp. 37–51 - Mittermeier, R.A.; Konstant, W.R.; Hawkins, F.; Louis, E.E.; et al. (2006). Lemurs of Madagascar. Illustrated by S.D. Nash (2nd ed.). Conservation International. ISBN 1-881173-88-7. OCLC 883321520. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883321520" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883321520</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:69"><p>Godfrey, L.R.; Semprebon, G.M.; Jungers, W.L.; Sutherland, M.R.; Simons, E.L.; Solounias, N. (2004). "Dental use wear in extinct lemurs: evidence of diet and niche differentiation" (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. 47 (3): 145–169. Bibcode:2004JHumE..47..145G. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.06.003. PMID 15337413. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-30. Retrieved 2010-08-24. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120330220100/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/krigbaum/proseminar/Godfrey_etal_2004_JHE.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120330220100/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/krigbaum/proseminar/Godfrey_etal_2004_JHE.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:70"><p>Godfrey, L.R.; Semprebon, G.M.; Jungers, W.L.; Sutherland, M.R.; Simons, E.L.; Solounias, N. (2004). "Dental use wear in extinct lemurs: evidence of diet and niche differentiation" (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. 47 (3): 145–169. Bibcode:2004JHumE..47..145G. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.06.003. PMID 15337413. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-30. Retrieved 2010-08-24. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120330220100/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/krigbaum/proseminar/Godfrey_etal_2004_JHE.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120330220100/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/krigbaum/proseminar/Godfrey_etal_2004_JHE.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Sussman 2003, pp. 107–148 - Sussman, R.W. (2003). Primate Ecology and Social Structure. Pearson Custom Publishing. ISBN 978-0-536-74363-3. <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Godfrey & Jungers 2002, pp. 108–110 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L. (2002). Chapter 7: Quaternary fossil lemurs. pp. 108–110. <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Godfrey et al. 1997, pp. 218–256 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Reed, K.E.; Simons, E.L.; Chatrath, P.S. (1997). Chapter 8: Subfossil Lemurs. pp. 218–256. <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Godfrey & Jungers 2003, pp. 1247–1252 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L. (2003). Subfossil Lemurs. pp. 1247–1252. <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Horvath, J.; Weisrock, D.W.; Embry, S.L.; Fiorentino, I.; Balhoff, J.P.; Kappeler, P.; Wray, G.A.; Willard, H.F.; Yoder, A.D. (2008). "Development and application of a phylogenomic toolkit: Resolving the evolutionary history of Madagascar's lemurs" (PDF). Genome Research. 18 (3): 489–499. doi:10.1101/gr.7265208. PMC 2259113. PMID 18245770. <a href="https://genome.cshlp.org/content/18/3/489.full.pdf" target="_blank">https://genome.cshlp.org/content/18/3/489.full.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:77"><p>Orlando, L.; Calvignac, S.; Schnebelen, C.; Douady, C.J.; Godfrey, L.R.; Hänni, C. (2008). "DNA from extinct giant lemurs links archaeolemurids to extant indriids". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 8 (1): 121. Bibcode:2008BMCEE...8..121O. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-121. PMC 2386821. PMID 18442367. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2386821" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2386821</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:78"><p>Godfrey, Jungers & Burney 2010, Chapter 21 - Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Burney, D.A. (2010). Chapter 21: Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar. <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:79"><p>Nowak 1999, pp. 89–91 - Nowak, R.M. (1999). 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Chapter 8: Subfossil Lemurs. pp. 218–256. <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:82"><p>Simons, E.L.; Godfrey, L.R.; Jungers, W.L.; Chatrath, P.S.; Ravaoarisoa, J. (1995). "A new species of Mesopropithecus (Primates, Palaeopropithecidae) from Northern Madagascar". International Journal of Primatology. 15 (5): 653–682. doi:10.1007/BF02735287. S2CID 21431569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:83"><p>Nowak 1999, pp. 89–91 - Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5789-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/walkersmammalsof0002nowa</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:84"><p>Nowak 1999, pp. 89–91 - Nowak, R.M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World (6th ed.). 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